Learning Vocabulary Terms

Acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Biological Preparedness

the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

Cognitive Maps

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Conditioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Fixed Interval

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Fixed Ratio

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Higher Order Conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Insight Learning

a cognitive form of learning involving the mental rearrangement or restructuring of the elements in a problem to achieve a sudden understanding of the problem and arrive at a solution.

Instinctive Drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Learned Helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Negative Punishment

punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is removed as a consequence of a response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Observational Learning

learning by observing others (also called social learning)

One Trail Conditioning

learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated exposure to a stimulus

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Partial Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Positive Punishment

punishment that results because some stimulus or circumstance is presented as a consequence of a response

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Primary Reinforcement

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Secondary Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, the process in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to influence the future probability of a particular response by virtue of being paired with another stimulus that naturally enhances such probability

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Stimulus Discrimination

the ability to distinguish among different stimuli (e.g., to distinguish a circle from an ellipse) and to respond differently to them

Stimulus Generalization

the spread of effects of conditioning (either operant or classical) to stimuli that differ in certain aspects from the stimulus present during original conditioning

Taste Aversions

avoidance of a particular taste

The Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

Variable Interval

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Variable Ration

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses