Hume

What are the 5 key outlines of Hume’s philosophy?

Empiricism, scepticism, naturalism, atheism, and sentimentalism.

What kind of scepticism did Hume reject?

Pyrrhonian - which holds that for every argument, an opposing argument exists of equal weight, making definite knowledge impossible

What is Hume’s view of naturalism?

Human beings are part of nature, and not so different from other animals. He was suspicious of the radical gap between humans and animals, a somewhat radical view in itself.

What work did Hume want to be forgotten?

‘A Treatise of Human Nature’

What was Hume’s conception of moral philosophy?

The study of what is distinctively human, or the ‘science of human nature’. Aims at truth about human beings, and is a theoretical objective rather than a practical one.

What is Hume’s distinction between impressions and ideas?

Hume uses the word perception where Locke uses the word idea. Perceptions are divided into two classes: ideas as the weaker perceptions, impressions as the more forceful and vivid perceptions you have.

What are Impressions for Hume?

They are ‘forceful’, ‘lively’, and ‘violent’. Examples include the experiences you have when you see, hear, touch, taste or smell things. The feelings you have when you experience emotions - e.g. anger or love - are also impressions.

What are Ideas for Hume?

‘Faint’ and ‘low’. The mind perceives ideas when it thinks, reasons, remembers, and imagines.

What is Hume claiming in terms of perceptions?

He is claiming that the difference between feeling and thinking consists in the ‘force’ and ‘liveliness’ of the perceptions they involve.

What kind of sceptic is Hume?

Not radical, but mitigated sceptic - he doubts reason’s foundations but accepts everyday beliefs.

What is Hume’s main claim about perception?

The difference between thinking and feeling is degree of vivacity, not kind.

What is the copy principle?

All ideas are derived from prior impressions.

What does the copy principle establish?

Concept empiricism - no innate ideas; all concepts come from experience.

What is Hume’s first argument?

Complex ideas can be broken into simple ideas → each traced back to impressions (e.g. God = amplified human traits).

What is Hume’s second argument?

No sensory experience → no idea (e.g. blind person cannot form idea of colour)

What is Stroud’s counterexample?

A memory can be more vivid than an original perception → challenges the impression/idea distinction.

Does Hume acknowledge exceptions to the copy principle?

Yes - but he dismisses them as insignificant.

How does Bennett reinterpret the copy principle?

Not empirical, but about meaning - a term is meaningful only if linked to experience

What method does Hume propose for philosophical clarity?

Ask: “From what impression is this idea derived?'“

What is the key connection between Empiricism and Naturalism?

Empircism → undermines rational justification → leads to scepticism BUT Naturalism → explains why we still believe things anyway

What is a counter for argument 1 for the Copy Principle?

Just because you can analyse ideas this way doesn’t prove all ideas come from impressions. It’s more like an observation than strict proof.

Why is the Copy Principle persuasive?

It feels intuitive; you can’t imagine a taste you’ve never experienced. Again though, this is just correlation, not proof.

What is Stroud’s counterexample?

A detective may see a room (impression) but later recall it vividly (idea)

Why does Bennett’s solution save Hume?

Reinterpret it as not ‘all ideas come from impressions’ but ‘meaningful ideas must connect to experience’.

What is Hume’s Fork?

The claim that all objects of human knowledge are either relations of ideas or matters of fact.

What does Hume’s Fork classify?

Types of propositions (truths) - all meaningful claims fall into one of the two categories

What are relations of ideas?

Truths that are true in virtue of meaning, independent of experience

Give examples of relations of ideas.

Mathematics and logic (e.g. ‘2+2=4’ or ‘all bachelors are unmarried’)

Are relations of ideas analytic or synthetic?

Analytic

Are relations of ideas known a priori or a posteriori?

A priori (independent of experience)

Are relations of ideas necessary or contingent?

Necessary (cannot be otherwise)

Why is the negation of a relation of ideas impossible?

Because it leads to a contradiction.

What are matters of fact?

Truths about the world that depend on experience.

Give examples of matters of fact.

‘The sun will rise tomorrow’. ‘This table is brown’.

Are matters of fact analytic or synthetic?

Synthetic.

Are matters of fact known a priori or a posteriori?

A posteriori (through experience)

Are matters of fact necessary or contingent?

Contingent (could be otherwise)

Why is the negation of a matter of fact possible?

Because it does not involve a contradiction.

What three distinctions does Hume’s Fork combine?

• analytic vs synthetic (semantic)

• a priori vs a posteriori (epistemological)

• necessary vs contingent (metaphysical)

How does Hume align these distinctions?

Relations of ideas = analytic, a priori, necessary

Matter of fact = synthetic, a posteriori, contingent

What is the significance of Hume’s Fork?

It limits meaningful knowledge to a) logic/maths b) empirical observation

What does Hume say about works that are neither logical nor empirical?

They should be ‘committed to the flames’ as meaningless.

What is Kant’s objection to Hume’s Fork?

There are synthetic a priori truths, which don’t fit Hume’s categories.

Why do synthetic a priori truths challenge Hume?

They break the link between analytic/a priori/ necessary.

What is the ‘red and green all over’ problem?

A statement that seems necessary and a priori but not analytic.

How might Hume defend the fork against the red-green case?

Claim it is analytic (true by definition).

What is the problem with Hume’s reponse to the ‘red and green’ problem?

it relies on circular or implausible definitions of colour.

How might Hume defend the fork (strategy 2)?

Claim it is empirical ( a posteriori and contingent).

What is the problem with the second response?

It seems counterintuitive - colour incompatibility feels necessary.

How does Quine challenge Hume’s Fork?

Rejects the analytic/synthetic distinction entirely.

How does Kripke challenge Hume’s Fork?

Shows some truths are necessary but a posteriori.

What is the philosophical consequences of Hume’s Fork?

Logic gives certainty but no new knowledge. Experience gives knowledge but no certainty.

According to Stroud, what is Hume’s “theory of ideas”?

A framework where all mental content consists of perceptions (impressions and ideas), derived from experience.

According to Stroud, how does Hume treat the theory of ideas?

Not as something argued for, but as something he assuumes to be obviously true.

According to Stroud, how does Hume differ from Locke on ‘ideas’?

Locke uses ‘ideas’ for all mental content; HUme uses ‘perceptions’ and divides them into impressions and ideas

According to Stroud, what does Hume inherit from Locke?

The claim that all ideas ultimately come from experience.

According to Stroud, what is the problem with Hume’s distinction?

It is unclear what ‘force and vivacity’ actually mean or how to measure them

According to Stroud, why is this distinction philosophically important?

Because Hume needs it to distinguish thinking from perceiving.

According to Stroud, what kind of argument is Hume making?

A causal inference from correlation and temporal priority.

According to Stroud, what is weak about this argument?

It assumes that correlation + priority = causation, which is not proven

According to Stroud, what key assumptions does Hume rely on?

• All mental activity involves perceptions

• Perceptions during sensing are impressions

According to Stroud, how does Hume reject innate ideas?

By claiming every idea originates from prior sensory impressions

According to Stroud, what stronger claim is Hume making?

Not just that experience is needed, but that each depends on a specific prior impression

According to Stroud, does Hume successfully distinguish thinking from perceiving?

No - he fails to give a clear and consistent account

According to Stroud, what is the main weakness of Hume’s theory?

It relies on unclear distinctions and unproven assumptions

According to Craig, what is Hume’s overall aim?

To replace rationalist accounts of belief with a naturalistic, psychological explanation

According to Craig, how does Hume view reason?

As weak and limited, incapable of justifying most of our beliefs.

According to Craig, what problem does the missing shade case raise?

It suggests we can form ideas without prior impressions

According to Craig, what is the purpose of the copy principle?

To test whether philosophical ideas are meaningful

According to Craig, how does this apply to causation?

There is no impression of causation, so its meaning is questionable

According to Craig, what is Hume’s claim about thinking?

Thinking just is having mental imageryA

According to Craig, why is this false?

We think without constant imagery, and abstract thoughts cannot be reduced to images

According to Craig, what is the deeper problem?

Images cannot determine specific propositional content

According to Craig, what is the key difference between thought and belief?

You can think without believing, but belief involves commitment to truth

What is Hume’s central question about induction?

How we form beliefs about unobserved matters of fact

What two types of question does this involve?

Psychological: what causes these beliefs?

Epistemological: are these beliefs justified?

What are Hume’s two key conclusions about induction?

Not based on reasoning but based on custom/habit

What is induction?

Inferring unobserved matters of fact from observed ones

According to Hume, what makes induction possible?

The relation of cause and effect

Why are causal claims not relations of ideas?

Because they are not knowable a priori

What example illustrates this?

Adam could not infer fire burns or water drowns from reason alone

What is Hume’s core challenge about induction?

How do we justify moving from past experience → future predictions

What is the key gap Hume identifies?

This has happened doesnt mean this will happen

What principle is needed to justify induction?

That the future will resemble the past.

What is this principle called?

The uniformity of nature

Why can’t uniformity be proven a priori?

Because it is conceivable that nature changes

Why can’t uniformity be proven by experience?

Because that would assume the future resembles the past

Why is inductive reasoning circular?

It uses past success of induction to justify future induction

What is Hume’s sceptical conclusion?

Beliefs about unobserved matters of fact are not based on reasoning

If not reason, what explains induction?

Custom or habit

How does custom work?

Repeated experience → automatic expectation

Is this process voluntary?

No - it is psychological and involuntary

How do animals support Hume’s view?

Animals use induction without reasoning. Induction is instinct, not reasoning.

What is the sceptical interpretation?

Inductive beliefs are not justified at all. (supported by Stroud)

What is the non-sceptical interpretation?

Hume only rejects demonstrative (certain) reasoning, not all justification

What is the psychological interpretation?

Hume is explaining how beliefs are formed, not whether they are justified

What is a major objection to Hume’s scepticism?

He assumes that justification must be deductive

Why is this problematic (deductive)?

Induction is not meant to be deductive

According to Stroud, what is required for justified belief?

Not just belief, but justified belief in the reliability of the reason itself

What does this lead to?

Infinite regress unless uniformity is justified