HIS 335: Native American History Exam #1

Creation stories

• Vary among different tribes, each reflecting unique cultural beliefs

• The Great Spirit

• The Trickster

• The Goddess

• The Hero

• Common themes include the creation of humans, the emergence of people, and interactions between deities and natural elements

• Navajo: Holy People that shape the world from a series of underworlds, leading to the emergence of people

• Hopi tells of Spider Woman guiding Hopi through different worlds

• Iroquois focuses on the Sky Woman falling from the sky, creating land on the back of a turtle

Sacred geography

• Native American sacred geography involves the spiritual significance attributed to specific landscapes, natural features, and landmarks within Indigenous cultures

• Sacred sites include: mountains, rivers, rock formations, which hold spiritual significance

• Ceremonial grounds are designated areas for rituals and ceremonies, often chosen based on their perceived spiritual energy

  • Sundance ceremony is performed in sacred places

• Belief system emphasizes deep connection with land, seeing it as a living entity / deity

  • Nature is considered sacred

• Burial mounds are also significant elements in Native American sacred geography

  • Served as burial sites

  • Various sizes shapes

Paleoindian culture

• 13,000-7,000 years ago

• Pre-Agricultural Period

• Clovis points used, one of the earliest well-documented distinctive fluted projectile points used in hunting

• Skilled hunters adapted to hunt large animals

• Highly mobile, followed migration patterns of game animals

• Clovis culture were believes to be the first and earliest human inhabitants of the Americas, but alternating theories have emerged suggesting earlier migrations

Clovis and Folsom point

Clovis and Folsom points are both distinctive types of stone projectile points associated with Paleoindian cultures

• Clovis:

  • Large, with characteristic grooves along both ends

  • Fluted, short flute

  • Iconic

  • Earliest evidence of human habitation in the Americas

  • Used for hunting large game, such as mammoths

• Folsom:

  • More refined than Clovis poionts

  • They have distinct fluting, but the flutes are often longer and more finely crafted

  • Associated with the hunting of bison

  • More advanced hunting strategies

Archaic culture

• 8,000 - 2,000 years ago

• Follows the Paleoindian period

• Precedes the development of complex, regionally distinct Native American cultures.

• Transition to sedentary life from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles

• More settled

  • Transition was influenced by environmental changes and availability of diverse resources

• Engaged in variety of subsistence strategies: hunting, fishing, foraging, and plant cultivation

• Began making pottery for cooking and storage

• Some engaged in mound building

• Advances in tools resulted in the creation of the atlatls

Woodland culture

• Spans from 1000 BC to 800 AD

• Characterized by significant cultural developments among indigenous people

  • A shift towards more settled communities

    • Began building semi-permanent or permanent villages

    • Often near water sources

  • Horticulture, including the cultivation of plants

    • Sunflowers

    • Squash

  • Ceramic vessels became more elaborate, distinctive shapes and decorations

  • Mound building became more prominent

    • Burial mound construction and ceremonial earthworks

Mississippian tradition

• 800 - 1600 AD

• Characterized by complex societies, large ceremonial centers, and distinctive artistic and technological achievements

• Cahokia Mounds are one of the most prominent Mississippian cultural centers

  • Engaged extensively in mound buildings

• Exhibited a social hierarchy with distinct classes

• Engaged in agriculture

  • Corn, beans, squash

• Participated in trade networks exchanging goods

  • Copper, shell, crafted items

• Produced intricate pottery with complex geometric designs and symbolic motifs

• USED TOOLS LIKE BOWS AND ARROWS AND SHAFT ABRADER

Hopewell tradition

• A cultural phenomenon that spanned THE MIDDLE WOODLAND PERIOD

• Named after the Hopewell Mound Group in Ohio

• Participated in mound building

  • The mounds were shaped after / like animals or symbols, and served ceremonial purposes

• They created finely crafted pottery with intricate designs

• Elaborate burial goods and crafted items were made from materials like mica, copper, and shells

• Engaged in LONG DISTANCE trade NETWORKS ALL OVER and exchanged goods

  • Copper

  • Obsidian

  • Shells

  • Other exotic materials

Shaft abrader / wrench

• Primary function was to grind, smooth, or shape materials

• The tool was made from hard stone

  • The abrasive material allowed for effective grinding and smoothing of tool materials

• Shaft abrader typically had a flat or concave surface

  • One or more grooves to help with handling and using it

• Helped with the production of spears, arrows, and other hunting and/or cutting equipment

Monk’s Mound

• Largest earthen mound at the Cahokia Mounds archaeological site

  • Located near present-day Collinsville, Illinois

• Ancient site was once part of the Cahokia settlement, which was a major center of the Mississippian culture

• Likely a platform for important structures, ceremonial sites, and possibly a symbol of the social and political complexity of Cahokia

• UNESCO World Heritage Site

• A significant archaeological and cultural landmark in North America

Middle Missouri culture

• ANCESTORS OF THE MANDAN

• Plain village culture

  • Villages of 1000+

  • Located on bluffs overlooking river valleys

• Sedentary farmers

  • farmed maize, beans, squash, and sunflowers

• Created ditches, palisades, and cache pits

• Large rectangular structures for housing

  • Housed several families

Coalescent culture

• ANCESTORS OF THE ARIKARA

• Moved from Nebraska

• Experienced the Pacific Climate episode

• Had villages similar to the Middle Missouri

  • Their houses were circular

Crow Creek site

• A site located along the Missouri River in central South Dakota, USA

• It was discovered in 1970s during construction activities

• Archaeologists found a mass burial pit containing skeleton remains of primarily men, and some women and children

  • The mass burial at Crow Creek is one of the largest and most complex prehistoric mass burials in N.A

• Analysis of the skeletal remains suggests evidence of violent physical trauma

  • Interpreted as a large-scale violent event

  • Suggests complex interactions and raises questions about the social organizations and dynamics of Middle Missouri culture

• The real circumstances remain a debate

Atahualpha (Incan)

• The last emperor of the Incan Empire, one of the largest and most powerful pre-Columbian empires in the Americas.

  • Largely based out of Peru

  • Lasted until 1533, it was in decline when the Spaniards arrived

• They had a “quiqu” record keeping system which was a series of knots

• Atahualpa was captured by Spanish conquistador Pizarro during a meeting in the city of Cajamarca

  • They took advantage of internal divisions, used superior weaponry to capture the emperor

• To secure his release, Atahualpha offered a room filled with gold and twice that amount in silver as a random

  • Largest ransom in history

• Pizarro would march the Incan capital in 1533.

Montezuma (Aztec)

• Montezuma II was the leader of the Aztec Empire during the Spanish conquest. In 1519, Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes arrived on the coast of present day Miexco.

• Montezume sent ambassadors initially to greet the Spaniards, but Cortes took advantage of internal divisions and political unrest.

• Same thing, took Montezuma captive

• The Spanish presence and demand for gold and resources created discontent among the Aztecs, and during the conflict, Montezuma was killed

• Empire peaked around 1400s and began to decline after

Christopher Columbus & the Taino

• During Columbus’ first voyage, reached the islands of the Caribbean in Hispaniola, where he encountered the Taino people.

• The Taino were indigenous people living in the Greater Antilles

• Columbus said they were friendly and generous, and initially, there was a degree of mutual curiosity and exchange.

  • However, Columbus began exploiting and mistreating them.

  • He forced them to forced labor, including the search for gold.

  • The harsh conditions combined with disease led to rapid decline in their populations.

Doctrine of Discovery

• A doctrine issued by Pope Alexander VI in May, 1493

• Played a central role in the Spanish conquest of the New World.

• The doctrine stated that it was an international law doctrine giving authorization to explorers to claim inhabited land in the name of their sovereign country, if the land was non populated by Christians.

Requerimento

• A legal and theological document used by the Spanish colonizers during the Age of Exploration during the 1500s.

• It was intended to be read to indigenous peoples upon the arrival of Spanish explorers

  • asserted Spain’s claim to the newly discovered lands and informed the indigenous populations of their obligations under Spanish authority

• Presented as justification for Spain and the Catholic Church

• Significant issues:

  • The indigenous populations did not understand Spanish

  • It was impossible to understand

  • Sometimes mumbled or read very quickly

• Played a big role in the historical process of colonization, violence, exploitation, subjugation of indigenous peoples, and disruption of indigenous cultures.