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The fragmentation of western Christendom
The division of Christianity in Europe into Protestant and Catholic factions during the Reformation.
The Protestant Reformation
A movement to reform the Roman Catholic Church
Martin Luther attacked the sale of indulgences
1517
Attacked corruption in the Roman Catholic Church
Highlighted abuses within the church and called for change based on scripture.
Argument reproduced with printing presses
Luther's writings spread widely thanks to the printing press
Enthusiastic popular response
Luther's ideas resonated with lay Christians
By mid-sixteenth century
half the German people adopted Lutheran Christianity
Reform spread outside Germany
Protestantism gained traction in Switzerland
English Reformation
Initiated by King Henry VIII to break from the Catholic Church
John Calvin
French Protestant reformer who established a strict theocratic community in Geneva.
Calvinist missionaries
Spread Calvinism to Scotland
The Catholic Reformation
A movement within the Catholic Church to reform and counteract Protestant growth.
The Council of Trent
1545-1563
The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
A Catholic order founded to educate and spread Catholicism worldwide.
Witch-hunts in Europe
Hysteria over witchcraft led to the execution of thousands
Religious wars in Europe
Conflicts between Protestants and Catholics dominated the 16th century.
The Thirty Years' War
A devastating European war (1618–1648) stemming from religious and political tensions.
The consolidation of sovereign states
The formation of centralized states with distinct governments and territories.
Charles V
Holy Roman Emperor
The new monarchs of England
France
The Spanish Inquisition
A Catholic court established to root out heresy and enforce religious orthodoxy.
Constitutional states
England and the Netherlands developed systems of government with limited powers and individual rights.
Absolutism
A political system where monarchs held absolute power
Louis XIV
The "Sun King" of France
The Peace of Westphalia
A treaty in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and established sovereign states.
The balance of power
A diplomatic principle to prevent any one state from dominating others.
Early capitalist society
An economic system where private parties made decisions based on supply and demand.
Population growth
Improved nutrition and disease resistance led to a European population boom from 1500 to 1800.
Urbanization
Rapid growth of cities as commercial and administrative centers during early modern Europe.
The nature of capitalism
Economic activity driven by private parties and free-market principles.
Supply and demand
Determined prices and encouraged the development of trade networks and financial institutions.
Joint-stock companies
Organizations like the EEIC and VOC that pooled resources for large-scale trade and colonization.
The putting-out system
A production system where rural laborers produced goods for merchants outside guild control.
Social change in early modern Europe
Capitalism improved living standards but also created social tensions.
The nuclear family
Strengthened by economic independence and emotional bonds in capitalist society.
The reconception of the universe
A shift from the geocentric to the heliocentric model during the Scientific Revolution.
The Ptolemaic universe
A model with Earth at the center
The Copernican universe
A heliocentric model proposing the sun as the center of the universe.
Galileo Galilei
Scientist who made groundbreaking observations with the telescope and advanced physics.
Isaac Newton
Developed the laws of motion and gravity
The Enlightenment
An intellectual movement applying reason and scientific principles to human society.
John Locke
Philosopher who argued that human knowledge comes from sensory experiences.
Adam Smith
Economist who explained market behavior using laws of supply and demand.
Montesquieu
Advocated for political liberty through the separation of powers in government.
Voltaire
Enlightenment thinker who championed religious freedom and individual rights.
Deism
The belief in a rational God who created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs.
The theory of progress
Enlightenment belief in rational analysis and human advancement to improve society.
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