KRM 120 Section B

Crime prevention as a public health challenge

Crime prevention is viewed as a public health challenge.

Proactive crime prevention

It involves proactive strategies that seek to pre-empt criminal acts, rather than reactive responses after a crime has been committed.

Three-stage model of crime prevention

Interventions rely on a three-stage model: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary prevention.

Institutions and programs for crime prevention

These stages are delivered through institutions and programs such as: families, schools, labor markets, organizations, communities, and the Criminal Justice System (CJS).

Primary crime prevention - aim

Aims to avoid criminal activities from occurring in the physical and social environment that causes deviant behavior.

Primary crime prevention - focus

Involves intervening before any criminal behavior has occurred.

Primary crime prevention - method

Focuses on changing the existing environment to eliminate crime.

Primary crime prevention - delivery

Delivered at the individual and community levels.

Types of primary crime prevention

Specific types include: Developmental crime prevention, Community-based crime prevention, Social crime prevention, Situational crime prevention (SCP).

General deterrence in primary prevention

General deterrence is also considered part of primary crime prevention.

Secondary crime prevention - target

Targets individuals or groups who exhibit early symptoms of a disease or are at risk (similar to working with toxic material like asbestos).

Secondary crime prevention - focus

Directed at those at high risk of becoming offenders due to routine activities in crime-prone areas.

Secondary crime prevention - method

Focuses on reducing opportunities for crime by identifying and predicting risky situations.

Secondary crime prevention - SCP

Includes SCP, which at this level focuses on existing factors that foster deviant behavior (e.g., gang activity).

Secondary vs. primary crime prevention

Contrasts with PRIMARY CRIME PREVENTION, which aims to prevent problems from arising (e.g., cleaning up a dilapidated building).

Secondary crime prevention - micro-level

Seen at a micro-level, involving socialization agents like parents and educators.

Tertiary crime prevention - alignment

Aligns with the public healthcare model, dealing with the problem after it has occurred.

Tertiary crime prevention - CJS

Similar to the CJS, which acts after a crime has been committed.

Tertiary crime prevention - aims

Aims to: Rehabilitate the offender to prevent recidivism. Restore damage to the victim.

Tertiary crime prevention - dual purpose

Serves a dual purpose: Preventive strategy for offender reintegration. Acts as general deterrence.

Crime-prevention programme

A crime-prevention programme is a focused, organized effort to restrict a routine practice. Usually outlined in a manual with clear guidelines (e.g., community policing guidelines).

Crime-prevention practice

A crime-prevention practice is a general, everyday measure to prevent crime. Examples: carrying keys ready, locking doors, closing gates, activating alarms, changing travel routines.

Dominant crime-prevention approaches

Dominant approaches include: Situational Crime Prevention (SCP), Crime Prevention Through Social Development (CPTSD), Community Crime Prevention, Crime Prevention by the CJS.

Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) - definition

An alternative to traditional prevention, focusing on the criminological aspect of crime.

SCP - theoretical basis

Founded in Environmental Criminology and based on: Rational Choice Theory (RCT), Crime Pattern Theory (CPT), Routine Activities Theory (BWT).

SCP - focus

Focuses on the crime itself, not the offender.

SCP - aim

Aims to reduce opportunities for crime by changing the environment (e.g., locks, metal detectors).

SCP - target hardening

Known as target hardening.

SCP - action research

Uses action research methods (evaluation, investigation, analysis).

SCP - problem analysis

Analyzes specific problems or risks, not general crime.

SCP - associated methodologies

Linked to Problem-Oriented Policing (POP): Analyzes recurring problems. Identifies features and takes preventive measures. Evaluates interventions (SITRAP reports).

Crime Script Analysis

Describes full sequence of crime (before, during, after). Includes decision-making, actors, tools, location. Uses diverse data sources (e.g., court records, victim narratives). Helps develop targeted interventions.

SCP vs. other approaches

SCP differs from other approaches by focusing on environmental factors, not personal or social causes.

Criticisms of SCP

Neglects root causes of crime (e.g., unemployment, poverty). May lead to crime displacement—offenders move to new areas.

Clarke (2010) on SCP

Clarke (2010) argues: Offenders choose crime locations based on concentration, not just absence of guardians. SCP is a short-term strategy, but still effective.

Types of crime displacement

Territorial: Crime moves to a new area. Temporal: Crime shifts to a different time. Tactical: Change in method of committing crime. Target: New victim in the same area. Function: Switch to a different type of crime. Perpetrator: One offender stops, another takes over.

CPTED - definition

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED): 5 Principles for Crime Reduction.

CPTED - Surveillance & Visibility

Goal: Maximize observation of spaces. Passive: "Eyes on the street" by residents. Active: CCTV, drones, police, security, community patrols.

CPTED - Territoriality

Goal: Foster ownership and responsibility. Mechanism: Residents identify with and protect their space. Examples: Neighborhood watch, community policing, city improvement projects.

CPTED - Access & Escape Routes

Goal: Limit offender movement. Control: Monitor hot spots with static police/security presence. Design: Gated areas ("booming off"), restrict vacant land access.

CPTED - Image & Aesthetics

Goal: Promote safety through positive appearance. Risk: Neglect = "broken window" effect → invites crime. Prevention: Maintenance, anti-graffiti, CID initiatives (e.g., Hatfield CID in Pretoria).

CPTED - Target Hardening

Goal: Make targets less attractive or accessible. Method: Strengthen physical security. Aim: Increase offender effort, reduce vulnerability.

Community-Based Crime Prevention - theoretical basis

C-b CP is based on the Chicago School of Sociology (also known as the ecological school) of Criminology.

Community-Based Crime Prevention - focus

Addresses social cohesion and environmental factors that lead to community disorganisation.

Community-Based Crime Prevention - approaches

C-b CP is context-driven and can take two directions: Directed towards the community (crime deficiency approach). Directed towards uplifting individuals at risk of criminal involvement (community development approach).

Community-Based Crime Prevention - mechanism

Concerned with fostering social cohesion and securing neighbourhoods, recognizing that private citizens play a major role.

Community-Based Crime Prevention - implementation methods

Implemented through community-based initiatives focused on: Social (socio-economic) development, Community building, Physical prevention.

Social Development and Poverty Reduction - context

Discussed within the context of CPTED (Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design).

Social Development and Poverty Reduction - risk

Research suggests social development approaches are promising, especially in low socio-economic areas. Individuals in these areas are less likely to be involved in crime prevention initiatives, making it harder to address criminogenic risk factors.

Community-Based CP - aim

To develop social cohesion and reduce criminogenic risk factors.

Community-Based CP - targeting vulnerable groups

Includes single mothers, child-headed households, and families living in poverty.

Community-Based CP - support initiatives

Promote small business opportunities and training programs.

Physical Community-Based Crime Prevention - focus

Involves taking care of the physical environment.

Physical Community-Based Crime Prevention - deterrence principle

Signs of deterioration and neglect (e.g., crime) often increase crime.

Physical Community-Based Crime Prevention - initiatives

Include: Minimizing criminal activity, Refurbishment, Providing basic services (water, electricity, sanitation), Repair and maintenance of buildings and streets.

Physical Community-Based Crime Prevention - goal

Promote community involvement and visibility in public spaces, acting as natural surveillance.

Physical Community-Based Crime Prevention - alignment

Physical C-b CP aligns with the UN development goals.

Hatfield City Improvement District (CID) - example

Uses hard-core crime-prevention initiatives such as: Gardening, Public policing, Effective public services. These act as a crime insulator.

Crime Prevention by the CJS - role

The CJS (Police, Courts, Correctional Services) remains the leading role-player in general crime prevention and control.

Crime Prevention by the CJS - aim

Overall Crime Prevention Aim: To achieve individual and general deterrence through swift, relevant, and effective court proceedings and rehabilitation strategies.

SAPS Mandate

The functions of the South African Police Service (SAPS) are stipulated in the Constitution (Section 205(3)): To prevent crime, combat crime, investigate crime, protect and secure the inhabitants, and uphold and enforce the law.

Visible policing

Officers patrol streets to discourage crime and make people feel safe.

Hotspot policing

Police focus on areas with high crime rates to reduce incidents.

Problem-oriented policing

They study patterns and fix root causes (e.g. poor lighting, gang activity).

Community policing

Police work with residents, schools, and local leaders to solve problems together.

Intelligence-led policing

They use data, tips, and investigations to target known criminals.

Education and awareness

Police run campaigns and teach safety tips to prevent crime.

Technology use in policing

CCTV, drones, and crime mapping help police respond faster and smarter.

Challenges in policing

Limited resources, mistrust, and high crime in poor areas can make prevention harder.

Goal of policing

Prevent crime before it happens, build trust, and create safer communities.

CP aims

To reduce crime, Improve the quality of life, Reduce the fear of crime, Improve police transparency.

Sector Policing (SP) - mechanism

Community policing is carried out through Community Policing Forums (CPFs).

SP definition

SP is an approach to support CP, mandated by the SAPS National Instruction.

SP strategy

Divides policing areas into smaller, manageable sectors to improve community interaction and ensure consistent contact between police and residents.

Crime Prevention by the Courts - general deterrence and individual impact

Crime prevention by the courts involves taking action against an individual to act as a general deterrent.

Crime Prevention by the Courts - sentencing impact

The actual sentencing should have a significant impact on the individual's rehabilitation and ensure that the person does not commit crime once released.

Crime Prevention by the Courts - role in crime control

From a crime control perspective, the courts play a significant role in crime prevention.

Crime Prevention by the Courts - proactive selection

The courts may seek to deter selected individuals from continuing with criminal activity by intervening early.

Crime Prevention by the Courts - judicial mechanisms

The courts utilize various mechanisms to prevent crime, including: Issuing Arrest Warrants, Issuing Summons, Interdict/Restraining Orders (Domestic Violence).

Interdict/Restraining Orders (Domestic Violence)

In the context of South African domestic violence cases, victims can apply for a court interdict (a protection or restraining order) against the perpetrator. If the perpetrator violates this interdict, they will be arrested.

Crime Prevention by Correctional Services - approach

C-b CS primarily uses a reactive control approach by removing offenders from society to secure environments.

Correctional Services - dual function

Correctional services perform two functions: Ensuring security (punishment), Providing rehabilitation.

Correctional Services - deterrence

Imprisonment serves as punishment that deters others (general deterrence) and prevents the offender from reoffending (individual deterrence).

Correctional Services - rehabilitation goal

To convert offenders into law-abiding citizens through rehabilitation and reintegration.

Correctional Services - mandate

The Department of Correctional Services (DCS) operates under the Correctional Services Act.

White Paper on Corrections (2005)

Stipulates that prisons must function as rehabilitation centres.

DCS holistic approach

DCS promotes social justice, community participation, and developing life skills in offenders.

DCS Rehabilitation Programmes - categories

Rehabilitation programmes fall under three main categories: Offender Programmes, Offender Development, Psychological, Social Work, and Spiritual Services.

Offender Programmes

Aimed at crime awareness, providing information, and developing life skills.

Offender Development

Needs-based programmes and interventions to facilitate personal development and rehabilitation.

Psychological, Social Work, and Spiritual Services

Aimed at improving offenders' health and emotional wellbeing and assisting with rehabilitation and reintegration.

Reintegration - definition

Reintegration is a key part of the DCS rehabilitation programme, involving external stakeholders such as NGOs (e.g., NICRO, HUMELELA), spiritual workers, local communities, and families.

Reintegration - aim

To help offenders successfully transition from prison to the community, recognizing that this transition is stressful and often associated with fear and anxiety.

Reintegration - timing

Reintegration can occur at various stages of the criminal justice process, including diversion and pre-release.

Criminal Justice Process Flow - stages

The process illustrates the stages of intervention for offenders, which include: Diversion, Community-Based Sanctions, Prison/Detention Centre, Pre-Release and Re-Entry Programmes.

Diversion

Referral to a treatment facility (occurs instead of the criminal justice process).

Community-Based Sanctions

E.g., probation, community service, restorative justice (occurs as part of a criminal justice sanction).

Prison/Detention Centre

Includes educational, vocational, and rehabilitation programmes.

Pre-Release and Re-Entry Programmes

Early or conditional release/parole: After release from an institution with or without supervision. Aftercare. Post parole: After parole.

Environmental criminology - four dimensions of crime

According to Brantingham & Brantingham (1981), crime has four dimensions: Legal Dimension - Laws and their enforcement. Offender Dimension - Why people commit crimes. Target Dimension - Why certain people or property are victimized. Locality Dimension - Where and when crimes happen (focus of environmental criminology).