BIO 101: Final Lab Practical Review

2pq

symbolizes the frequency of the heterozygous genotype in a population

adaptations

Changes in physical structure, function, or behavior that allow an organism or species to survive and reproduce in a given environment.

aerobic cellular respiration

the process by which cells breakdown glucose or other organic molecules to produce ATP energy in the presence of oxygen; produces 36-38 ATP

alcoholic fermentation

the anaerobic process by which yeasts and other microorganisms break down sugars to form carbon dioxide and ethanol (alcohol)

allele

An alternative form of a gene.

anaerobic cellular respiration

the process by which cells obtain energy from an energy source without using oxygen; also know as fermentation; produces 2 ATP

analogous structures

structures that do not have a common evolutionary origin but are similar in function (ex. insect and bird wings)

anaphase

Phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell

anaphase I

tetrads separate and homologous chromosomes move apart to opposite sides of the cell

anaphase II

sister chromatids separate and spindle fibers pull chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

autosomes

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

bivalent

the four chromatids of the two homologous chromosomes that pair up during synapsis

cell cycle

stages from the first division of a cell to the time the resulting daughter cells divide

cell plate

A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.

centrioles

a pair of these make up the centrosome; these form the mitotic spindle

centromere

joins the sister chromatids together

centrosome

A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.

chiasma

The X-shaped, microscopically visible region representing homologous chromatids that have exchanged genetic material through crossing over during meiosis.

chromatin

DNA that is unwound into a thin strand; appears this way during interphase, when the cell is actively engaged in its metabolic processes

cleavage furrow

The first sign of cytokinesis in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate

codominance

A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive; the heterozygous genotype results in both of the phenotypes being expressed; example - roan horse

crossing over

Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during prophase I of meiosis

cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm during cell division

cytosine

nitrogenouse base that pairs with guanine

dihybrid cross

Cross or mating between organisms involving two pairs of contrasting traits

diploid

an organism or cell that has two of each type of chromosome (homologous pairs)

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes; contains covalent and hydrogen bonds and the sugar deoxyribose

DNA fingerprinting

analysis of fragments of DNA as a form of identification; involves the use of PCR and gel electrophoresis; used for crime scene analysis, paternity testing, food identification, identifying human remains, determining relatedness, determing disease-causing organisms, and identifying donors for organ transplants

DNA replication

The process in which DNA makes a duplicate copy of itself.

dominant allele

allele that is always expressed if present; it can mask or cover up the recessive allele

electron transport chain

takes the electrons from NADH and FADH2 molecules produced by glycolysis and the Kreb's cycle and passes them down a chain of proteins to produce 32-34 ATP; requires oxygen as the final electron acceptor; occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria

evolution

The gradual change in a species over time

evolutionary fitness

success in passing genes to the next generation

fermentation chamber

also known as a respirometer; used in lab to determine the rate of fermentation by measuring the air bubble height (more air means more carbon dioxide produced which means higher rate of alcoholic fermentation)

fertilization

Process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell

fossil

The preserved remains or traces of an organism that lived in the past

G1 phase

stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions

G2 phase

stage of interphase in which cell duplicates its cytosol and organelles and synthesizes proteins necessary for division

gametogenesis

production of gametes

gel electrophoresis

Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by size; involves placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel

gene

segment of DNA that codes of a functional product (usually a protein) and therefore controls a trait

gene flow

movement of alleles from one population to another (migration)

genetic drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.

genome

All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.

genotype

actual alleles for a gene

geological time scale

the standard method used to divide the Earth's long natural history into manageable parts

glycolysis

A metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to pyruvic acid and releases energy for the body in the form of ATP; also releases some electrons which get incorporated into NADH; occurs in the cytosol and can occur with or without oxygen

guanine

Nitrogenous base that pairs with cytosine.

haploid

an organism or cell that has only one of each type of chromosome

Hardy-Weinberg Equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

principle that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant (aka no evolution occurs) if the follow factors are met: no mutations, random mating, no genetic drift, no gene flow, and no natural selection

hemophilia

an X-linked recessive disorder that resulting in failure of blood to clot

heterozygous

when an organism possess two different alleles for a gene

homologous chromosomes

Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and contain genes that code for the same traits.

homologous structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry (ex. forelimbs of vertebrates)

homozygous

when an organism possess two identical alleles for a gene

incomplete dominance

A pattern of inheritance in which two alleles are neither dominant nor recessive. The resulting offspring have a phenotype that is a blending of the parental traits; example- four o'clock flowers

interkinesis

"resting" period between meiosis I and meiosis II (similar to interphase but NO DNA replication occurs)

interphase

period of the cell cycle between cell divisions; makes up 90% of the cell cycle; cell performs its usual functions during this stage

Jacobs Syndrome

XYY (male with an extra Y)

karyotype

A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.

kinetochores

where the mitotic spindle attaches to a chromosome

Klinefelter syndrome

XXY (male with an extra X chromosome)

Krebs cycle

also called the citric acid cycle; uses acetyl-coA and oxaloacetate to release a lot of electrons which get incorporated into NADH and FADH2; also makes carbon dioxide and 2 ATP; occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria and requires oxygen

lactic acid fermentation

the breakdown of glucose into lactic acid (lactate) and ATP

meiosis

nuclear division that reduces the chromosome number by half

metaphase

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

metaphase I

Pairs of homologous chromosomes move to the equator or middle of the cell.

metaphase II

chromosomes align at metaphase plate in a single file line (no homologous pairs)

microevolution

Change in allele frequencies in a population over generations.

mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

mitotic spindle

An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.

mitotic stage

includes mitosis and cytokinesis

monohybrid cross

A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits

mRNA

messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome

multiple alleles

three or more forms of a gene that code for a single trait

mutations

changes in the genetic material that can potentially lead to new variations of traits

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

negative

charge of a DNA fragment

nondisjunction

Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.

nonrandom mating

Mating among individuals on the basis of their phenotypic similarities or differences, rather than mating on a random basis

nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

oogenesis

the production, growth, and maturation of an egg, or ovum; occurs in females in the ovaries starting during fetal development, then stops and restarts once over 28 days from puberty to menopause

ova

female reproductive cells (eggs)

p

symbolizes the frequency of the dominant allele in a population (A)

p squared

symbolizes the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype in a population

palindrome

a segment of DNA that reads the same forward and backward on the complementary strands

pedigree

A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family.

phenotype

physical manifestation of the genotype

poly-X syndrome

XXX or XXXX (females with extra Xs)

polymerase chain reaction

A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase, free nucleotides, and temperature changes

population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

preparatory reaction

Reaction that oxidizes pyruvate with the release of carbon dioxide; results in acetyl CoA and connects glycolysis to the citric acid cycle; requires oxygen and occurs in the mitochondria

prometaphase

The second stage of mitosis, in which the nuclear envelope fragments and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.

prophase

Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms

prophase I

The chromosomes condense, and the nuclear envelope breaks down, the mitotic spindle forms, homologous chromosomes synapse and crossing-over occurs.

prophase II

chromosomes condense, nuclear envelop breaks down if needed, mitotic spindle forms (NO pairing of homologous chromosomes)

Punnett Square

A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross

pyruvate

the end product of glycolysis; results from the breakdown of glucose