unit 4 (social psychology and personality)

dispositional attributions

internal characteristics, such as intelligence, attitude, and personality

situational attributions

external, environmental factors that impact an individual, such as the weather and world events

attribution theory

explains how people may interpret and explain certain causes of behaviors; assists in recognizing personal thought processes, highlights the importance of internal and external factors, and can also shed light on personal biases

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors

actor-observer bias

the tendency to explain personal actions with situational attributions, but utilize dispositional attributions to explain someone else’s actions

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overemphasize internal factors when judging others’ behaviors while underestimating the importance of situation factors

explanatory style

the way in which an individual explains or rationalizes different events or situations in life

optimistic explanatory style

the tendency to explain negative events as temporary or to focus on and blame situational factors for certain events

pessimistic explanatory style

the tendency to explain negative events as permanent, blaming dispositional attributes for the outcome of events, and if events are positive, blame is often attributed to situational factors

locus of control

who or what an individual believes has power over the events in their life

external locus of control

the belief that outside factors, or situational factors, are what determine the outcome of different events in lives

internal locus of control

the belief that a person’s actions directly affect events in their lives

person perception

the way in which a person forms impressions of other people, including themselves

mere exposure effect

the possibility for a person’s repeated exposure to a stimulus to result in the individual liking more over time

self-fulfilling prophecy

the ability for a person’s expectations to influence their behavior in a way that can result in those expectations coming true

social comparison

a form of person perception, in which humans evaluate themselves by comparing their circumstances, skills, abilities, and internal characteristics to other people

upward social comparison

the type of social comparison in which individuals compare themselves to those they perceive to be better off

downward social comparison

the type of social comparison in which individuals compare themselves to those they perceive to be worse off

relative deprivation

a type of person perception in which people compare their relative circumstances with another person’s a excess wealth or ability to survive

reference group

the people or thing that a person is comparing themselves to

attitude

the way in which an individual thinks, feels, or behaves towards another person, object, idea, or situation

explicit attitudes

the beliefs that an individual is aware of

implicit attitudes

the unconscious beliefs that a person may not realize they hold

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe that the world is just and that individuals receive outcomes that are based on their actions or character

victim-blaming

the tendency to believe that a victim’s misfortunes are their own fault

out-group homogeneity bias

the tendency of an individual to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are

out-group

people that a person may perceive to be a part of a different group, specifically one that a person doesn’t consider to be a part of

in-group

people that a person may perceive to have to be a part of a shared group, as a result of shared characteristics between the person and people

in-group bias

the tendency for a person to favor and support people within their group and be more critical of those outside of their group

ethnocentrism

the belief that a person’s culture or ethnic group is superior to others’, and thus judges cultures based on the standard set by the person’s cultural group

cultural relativism

a way of viewing and judging cultures by its own standards, demonstrating that there is no cultural superiority

belief perserverance

the tendency for a person to maintain a belief despite information or evidence that clearly contradicts the belief

prejudiced attitudes

the preconceived negative attitudes toward a group and its members

discriminatory behavior

the unfair treatment of individuals based on the group that they belong to

explicit prejudice

the prejudiced attitudes that people are aware of and consciously agree with

implicit prejudice

the prejudiced attitudes a person may have without being consciously aware of them

cognitive dissonance

the mental discomfort or tension that arises if an individual has two conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

conformity

the tendency for a person to align their behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes with the norms and standards of a group

group size

the tendency for large groups to create stronger pressures to conform

group unanimity

the tendency for an individual to give a similar, or same, response to a group, if all members of the group gave the same, or similar, response

group cohesion

the increased likelihood for an individual to conform to a group, if there is a sense of belonging and acceptance that the individual feels within the group

authority

the increased likelihood for an individual to conform to groups, if the group contains individuals of higher status or greater authority

collectivist culture

teachings that emphasize supporting the group, family, or society, over the individual, leading to an increased likelihood for an individual to conform

individualistic culture

teachings that emphasize the individual identity of a person, including accomplishments and achievements, leading to a more resistant attitude towards conformity

multiculturalism

a situation where multiple cultures coexist within a society, leading to a person, who is within these communities, to be more open to other ideas

obedience

the way in which individuals respond to authority figures, as a result of influence from various factors, including the authority’’s legitimacy, proximity, the diffusion of responsibility, group pressure, and other individual factors

social-influence theory

a theory that examines how and why people are persuaded by others

normative influence

the tendency for a person to conform as a result of their desire to be liked and accepted by members of a group

informational influence

the tendency for an individual to conform because they believe that others have more accurate information

persuasion

the active attempts made to change other peoples’ attitudes, beliefs, or emotions associated with an issue, person, concept, or object

elaboration likelihood model

a model that argues that people are either persuaded by the central route to persuasion or the peripheral route to persuasion

central route to persuasion

the usage of facts as a means to persuade an individual, often requiring more time and elaboration

peripheral route to persuasion

the usage of emotions as a means to persuade an individual, often requiring less time and elaboration

halo effect

a cognitive bias that influences how a person thinks or feels about another person, based on what that person’s overall impression of them is

foot-in-the-door technique

a technique to persuade individuals by making a small, agreeable request first, and one an individual agrees, a larger, less-agreeable request is made

door-in-the-face technique

a technique to persuade individuals by, at first, making a large, unreasonable request, followed by smaller, agreeable request

group polarization

the tendency for an individual’s opinions, thoughts, or actions to become more extreme in a group setting

groupthink

a phenomenon where group cohesion and conformity pressure suppresses dissent and limits critical analysis, leading to poor decisions

deindividuation

a situation where an individual losers their sense of self-awareness or personal accountability while within a group, often due to the feeling of higher anonymity while in the group

diffusion of responsibility

the reduction of personal accountability and responsibilty as a result of beliefs that responsibilty is shared among the group

social loafing

the tendency for individuals to exert less effort into work, if working within a group of people on the same task

social facilitation

the tendency for individuals to perform better while in groups, if being observed by an outside party

industrial-organizational psychologists

psychologists that investigate the influence of human behavior in work settings impacts behaviors, with a focus on management practices, team dynamics, employee engagement, and burnout

false-consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people agree with personal beliefs, values, and behaviors

superordinate goals

objectives that require collaboration between individuals or groups, leading to a reduction of conflict by encouraging cooperative efforts towards a common cause

social traps

situations in which individuals act to benefit their own, short-term, interest, disregarding possible long-term, negative consequences those actions could have

altruism

selfless behaviors, often as a result of incurring social debts

social responsibility norm

the expectation that people help those who are dependent or in need of assistance

social reciprocity norm

the expectation that if a person engages in a positive action, then they should receive a positive action in return

bystander effect

a phenomenon during which individuals are less likely to assist someone in need when others are present, demonstrating how situational and attentional factors affect a person’s likelihood to help others