1.1-1.5 mcq test

evolutionary perspective

based on Darwin's theory of natural selection → an individual's thoughts and behaviors are based on what would give them the best chance of survival; subsequently, the behaviors that give the best chance of survival are passed on to further generations

natural selection

the organism with the traits best suited to survival and reproduction will survive to pass down its genes

eugenics

pseudoscience seeking to breed humans to promote certain characteristics

twin studies

experiments designed to measure the influence of genetic factors on human behavior by comparing identical (monozygotic) twins with fraternal (dizygotic) twins

family and adoption studies

comparing an adoptees traits to both the biological and adoptive parents. If the personality traits are closer to genetic relatives, it supports the theory that environment has little impact on personality while the opposite is true if traits are closer to adoptive parents.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body (all nerves not encased in bone). Contains somatic & autonomic systems.

autonomic nervous system

controls the glands & muscles of the internal organs. Mostly self-regulating but allows for conscious override of automatic functions

somatic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles, sensory input, motor output, and voluntary muscle movement

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight response, arouses the body & mobilizes energy by increasing heart rate, breathing, dilating pupils, and slowing digestion. Works to maintain homeostasis

parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest response, calms the body & conserves energy by slowing heart rate, breathing, constricting pupils, and increasing digestion. Works to maintain homeostasis

neuron

nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system, communicates info to the brain

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. May play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

reflex arc

the communication between one sensory neuron and one motor neuron via a spinal cord interneuron

sensory neurons

carries incoming information from tissues and sensory receptors to the central nervous system

motor neurons

carries outgoing information from the central nervous system to muscles & glands

interneurons

neurons within the central nervous system that communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor output

all-or-nothing principle

a neuron either fires (full force) or it doesn't

depolarization

when an axon opens to allow positive ions (attracted to negative ions) inside, which causes the next section of axon channels to open, etc (path of an action potential)

refractory period

the brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired. Action potentials cannot continue until the neuron returns to its resting state

resting potential

when positive ions are in a fluid outside the axon membrane and negative ions are inside the axon

reuptake

when a neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the sending neuron

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (when enough neurons reach the dendrites)

multiple sclerosis

degeneration in the myelin sheath which disrupts the flow of information in the brain & from the brain to the body resulting in a loss of muscle control

mysathenia gravis

autoimmune disease where the body attacks ACh receptors which impacts skeletal muscles resulting in muscle weakness & droopy eyes

excitatory neurotransmitter

a neurotransmitter that causes a postsynaptic neuron to propagate more action potentials

inhibitory neurotransmitter

a neurotransmitter that causes a postsynaptic neuron to propagate fewer action potentials

dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion, linked to reward-motivated behavior

serotonin

affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal, linked to overall well-being and depression

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal (attention/alert response)

glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory & the creation/regulation of nerve contacts

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter that has a calming effect

substance p

involved in pain perception and immune response

endorphins

neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure by blocking the release of substance p

acetylcholine (ACh)

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

hormones

chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect other tissues

adrenaline

the hormone that activates the sympathetic nervous system and increases alertness and fight or flight response

leptin

the hormone that signals the hypothalamus that the body has enough fat stored to function normally, controls appetite and metabolism

ghrelin

a hormone produced by the stomach that stimulates hunger

melatonin

a hormone that regulates sleep and wake cycles

oxytocin

a hormone associated with bonding, empathy, and trust (love & reproduction)

agonist drugs

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action (makes neurons fire)

antagonist drugs

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action (stops a neuron from firing)

reuptake

the process by which the presynaptic neuron reabsorbs its released neurotransmitter after the neurotransmitter has done its job by binding to the postsynaptic neuron

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up bodily functions, used to lose weight, feel alert, and boost mood or athletic performance (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy)

caffeine

a stimulant that blocks the action of adenosine, a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep and relaxation. Leads to a euphoric rush, confidence, energy, cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, and depressive crashes

cocaine

stimulant that creates a euphoric rush that depletes the supply of natural neurotransmitters, stimulates reward pathways, heightens reactions, emotional disturbances, suspiciousness convulsions, cardiac arrest, and respiratory failure

depressants

drugs that reduce normal activity and slow body functions (alcohol, barbiturates, and opioids)

alcohol

a depressant that can impair brain function, leading to changes in behavior and cognitive abilities. Leads to a high followed by relaxation and disinhibition, depression, memory loss, organ damage, and impaired reactions

hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

marijuana

a mild hallucinogen that uses THC to induce hallucinations, delusions, and anxiety, produces a euphoric high but impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time

opioids

depresses neural functions by replacing pain with pleasure, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

heroin

a depressant that creates a euphoria rush, pain relief, depressed physiology, and a loss of natural endorphin function

addiction

continuing compulsive substance use (or dysfunctional behavior patterns) despite negative consequences

withdrawal

the pain and cravings following the removal of an addictive drug or behavior

tolerance

when the regular use of a drug diminishes its effect, forcing the user to take a larger dose to experience the drug's effects

brain stem

(unconscious) part of the brain responsible for automatic (essential) survival functions

medulla

(unconscious) hindbrain structure at the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure

reticular activating system

(unconscious) transmits the sensory messages to different areas of the cerebral cortex through the thalamus, responsible for sensation, consciousness, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle

brain's reward center

comprised of the limbic system, a complex network of neural circuits that help regulate motivation, reinforcement, and pleasure responses

cerebellum

(unconscious) hindbrain structure at the rear of the brainstem that processes sensory input, coordinates movement output (assisted by the pons), balance, and enables nonverbal learning and memory (procedural learning)

cerebral cortex

interconnected neural cells that cover the forebrain's cerebral hemispheres—the body's ultimate control and information processing center

left hemisphere

controls the right body side, concerned with sensation and perception, motor control, and higher level cognitive processes

right hemisphere

controls the left body side and manages emotional language tone, creativity, music, and spatial processing

limbic system

located in the forebrain below the cerebral hemispheres, the emotional center associated with emotions and drives (includes: amygdala. Hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland)

thalamus

(unconscious, limbic) on top of the brainstem, the forebrain's sensory control center, directs messages (no smell) to sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

hypothalamus

(limbic system) directs maintenance activities (homeostasis), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward

pituitary gland

(limbic system) master gland that secretes hormones

hippocampus

(limbic) neural center that helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events for storage (memory processing)

amygdala

(limbic system) neural clusters that enable aggression and fear

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres and carries messages between them

frontal lobes

behind the forehead, enables linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning

parietal lobes

toward the top and rear of the head, receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

back of the head, includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

above the ears, includes auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear, also enables language processing

somatosensory cortex

cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes, registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

motor cortex

cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes, controls voluntary movement (stimulation controls movement on opposite sides of the body)

split brain research

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (corpus callosum) connecting them

broca's area

left hemisphere of the frontal lobe responsible for speech production and language comprehension

wernicke's area

a region in the brain that plays a key role in language comprehension

split brain patient

an individual whose two brain hemispheres are not connected, both hemispheres follow separate instructions simultaneously

aphasia

the impairment of the ability to communicate either through oral or written discourse as a result of brain damage (normally to Broca's Area)

brain's plasticity

the brain's ability to change (especially during childhood) by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experiences

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface, waves measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

reveals blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans (shows function as well as structure)

lesioning (brain surgical procedure)

using electrodes to destroy brain cells/tissue to observe effects on brain functions

consciousness

A state of being awake and aware of external stimuli and one's own mental activity

circadian rhythm (sleep/wake cycle)

the 24-hour biological clock in which regular body rhythms occur

NREM

non-rapid eye movement sleep

NREM Stage 1

hallucinations and hypnogogic sensations

NREM Stage 2

sleep spindles (bursts of rapid brain-wave activity that aid in memory processing)

NREM Stage 3

delta waves (large, slow waves associated with deep sleep)

hypnogogic sensations

bizarre experiences while transitioning to sleep (hypnic sensations, ex. Falling sensation)

REM sleep (paradoxical sleep)

rapid eye movement sleep, recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur

dreaming

a sequence of images, emotions, or thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

activation synthesis dream theory

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories

consolidation dream theory

dreams help sift, sort, and consolidate the day's experiences into memory

sleep disruption effects

mood, depressive disorders, weight gain

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep, leads to an increased risk of depression