Topic 1: The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment: Intellectual and philosophic movement based in Europe. It used reason to understand the world and applied it to government and directly challenged monarchs and the church.

• Theory of Progress: You can apply the theory scientists are using (in the scientific revolution) to understand the world to other topics (government, politics, etc.)

• Empiricism: The idea that learning comes from observation and experiences

• Deism: Belief that God created the world but did not determine the rules. God did not intervene in human affairs like previously thought.

• Secularism: Understanding the world in a non-religious way. In other words, using reason rather than religion to understand the world.

Enlightenment Ideas:

• Popular Sovereignty: Religion does not give the right to rule. Rather, the right to rule comes from the consent of the governed and thus the power of the ruler comes from the people

• Freedom: Rulers should be tolerant, especially in religion. People should be able to think and act freely. People’s rights need to be respected.

• Natural Rights: Rights all individuals inherently possess by virtue of being human, rather than granted by government. Rights are universal, unalienable, and rooted in the idea that they come from nature, reason, or a divine source.

• General Will: The civic impulses of citizens seeking to pursue the common good within their community. Personal will nor the will of the king or nobility should produce laws that govern that community.

• Social Contract: Individuals voluntarily agree to form a government to promote order, protect rights, and ensure benefit. In exchange, individuals give up some personal freedoms and abide in the rules/laws of that society. If a ruler misuses this power, the people have the right to overthrow the ruler.

• Equality: Everyone should be equal before the law, and everyone should be able to participate in government and law-making

Topic 2: 19th Century Political Revolutions

American (1765-1783)

Causes/Context

Seven Years’ War put Britain in great amounts of debt that they tried to pay off by taxing the American colonies. Taxation without their consent made the colonies angry, especially because of the many Acts passed by the British.

Enlightenment ideas, especially ideas of John Locke, spread that encouraged use of individual rights instead of a monarchy

Goals

Colonial representation in British Parliament in order to have a voice in the laws passed that would affect the colonies.

Get rid of British taxation and mistreatment, and also gain independence from Great Britain.

Events

Stamp Act (1765): British first tries to raise revenue through American subjects in the colonies

Tea Act (1773): Caused Boston Tea Party due to raised taxes and coercive (Intolerable) Acts

First Continental Congress in Philadelphia (1774)

Lexington and Concord (1775): Fighting began between British and American Troops in Massachusetts

Documents

Declaration of Independence (1776): stated sovereignty of American states and colonists officially declare they are breaking away from British rule

• Listed natural, unalienable rights of mankind

• The influence of enlightenment ideals are shown

Outcomes/Effects

Treaty of Paris: Great Britain recognize the independence of the North American colonies.

Inspired other revolutions in different parts of the world, setting the stage for anti-colonial revolutions

Constitution: gave rights but still was limited, especially to slaves and women. Bill of Rights was also passed that gave natural rights to male citizens.

America established a democratic republic, and their victory in the war gave them a sense of nationalism

French (1789-1799)

Causes/Context

Seven Years’ War left French in great amounts of debt. In order to change taxation laws, King Louis XVI called Estates General in 1778. This suddenly gave a voice to the third estate, that was consisted of commoners not part of nobility.

Leaders of the French revolution were inspired by the American Revolution and its established democracy

Goals

Initially, tried to promote harmony between French social classes and establish constitutional monarchy with King Louis still on the throne

Later, they wanted to get rid fo the privileges of the nobles and establish a democracy

Main goal was the establish equal rights and promote social equality

Events

King Louis XVI calls the Estates General (1788)

Third Estate declares itself the national assembly (1789)

All privileges of nobility and the church are abolished after the revolts (1789)

Storming of the Bastille: a former prison that symbolized the abuse of the monarchy and corrupt aristocracy. Peasants and poor working class revolted against nobles.

Reign of Terror (Radial Phase): period during when government executed thousands of opponents of the rebellion

Documents

Declaration of the Rights of Men and of the Citizens (1789): declared all citizens were equal under the law and had individual rights. Enlightenment ideas such as general will, popular sovereignty, and consent of the governed was reflected.

Outcomes/Effects

France abolished the nobility and passed its own constitution, establishing a representative democracy. This radially changed political and social structure of France. The National Assembly ended privilege of nobles and ended feudalism.

Napoleon rose to power and declared himself as emperor. He nearly conquered all of Europe and promoted equal rights and religious tolerance

After, France established a constitutional monarchy after the passing of the Constitution of 1791.

Haitian (1791-1804)

Causes/Context

Social inequality in Saint Dominque (a French colony, now called Haiti). The white population was divided into wealthy plantation owners and poor whites. The other 90% of the population was people of color and slaves who were dissatisfied with their circumstances.

Responded to American and French Revolutions

Goals

Social rights and equality regardless of skin color

Abolition of slavery and enslaved peoples

Independence from France

Events

Revolt of enslaved peoples (1791)

Toussaint L’ouverture led the revolts as a capable general

Documents

Haiti Declaration of Independence (1804): declaration of permanent independence

Haiti Constitution (1806): granted equality and citizenship to all its residents. People had the right to choose and be payed for their work.

Outcomes/Effects

Haiti formally declared its independence from France, which rejected racist hierarchies and dismantles plantation systems → farmers could now work in and own their own lands

Haiti became the first country in Latin America to win its own independence and first black-led country in Western hemisphere.

Only country to become permanently independent as a result of a slave uprising → Only successful salve revolution

Latin America (Late 18th Century-Early 19th Centuries)

Causes/Context

Revolted in response to the revolutions happening in Europe and Americas

Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal that left Lain American colonies without a direct European power controlling them.

Opposed Spanish mercantilism → Spanish controlled their exports by only trade with the Spanish

Goals

Creoles thought themselves superior and wanted to gain more political power by not following Spanish rule and guidelines → Wanted to gain more power because peninsulares were higher in social hierarchy

Peasants in Mexico: wanted their own land because food prices were too high

Independence from Spain and self-government

Bolívar wanted United South America (like the United States) → was not successful

Events

Bolívar, a revolution leader, pushed for enlightenment ideas in Latin America

Documents

Bolívar’s “Jamaican Letters” (1815)

Outcomes/Effects

Although constitutions in Latin America end some social distinction and abolished slavery, governments were still conservative

• Denied most indigenous peoples rights to vote

• Creoles continues to be powerful, conservative upper class

• Women received littles rights or education

Mexico gains independence in 1821. In South America, South American states also receive independence.

Nationalism

Nation: A group of people speaking a common language, sharing a common culture, a sense of a common destiny, and sharing a common history. Nations are neither natural nor biological. They are when a group of people decide to work together and defend a piece of land, live on it, and claim it as their own.

• “Imagined communities": Nationalism bonds people together in a way that is not genetic, biological, or even having a personal connection with other members of your national. It is about creating a unity and loyalty in our minds.

Rise of nationalism: People gained a sense of cohesion against their enemies after the war within France. By saying they were French, they were able to define what they were and what they were not. Additionally, as Napoleon expanded his armies across Europe, other nations agreed self-determination created a sense of common destiny against the French regime

The enlightenment spread new ideas through education and literacy. It weakened the power of the church, religious authorities, and absolute rulers. Connections between American colonies and Europe spread these ideas to the western hemisphere. Local loyalty to land helped propel revolutionary movements for national liberation and decolonial movements

Germany and Italy both had a common literary language and elites were developing ideas of a common destiny.

Topic 3: Causes and Spread of Industrialization

Causes of Industrialization

Proximity to water ways; access to rivers and canals

Navigable rivers and canals facilitated trade and transport. Rivers aided inland transportation and canals linked regions by water → regions further inland had access to trade networks

Geographical distribution of coal, iron, and timber

Some of Wester Europe’s largest coal deposits were in Great Britain that aided the substitution of wood (wood had decreased in supply due to deforestation)

Iron was also abundant that was necessary for machines, buildings, bridges, etc.

Timber was used early on for shipbuilding.

Urbanization

Factories concentrated labor into small areas, leading to urbanization.

Due to increased agricultural productivity, people moved into cities/towns for specialization.

People in the cities were the labor force for factories → centralized location

Improved agricultural productivity

Crop rotation techniques allowed more fertile soil and increased growing outputs. Farmers also experimented with livestock breeding, leading to healthier livestock. Enclosure movements by wealthy landowners led to more productive farming and yields.

Access to foreign resources

American colonies supplied England raw materials and products. Plantations supplied Europe with large amounts of sugar, cotton, food, and textiles.

Accumulation of capital

Thriving bourgeois class with wealth to invest in factories and also had trading and manufacturing experience.

Governments supported the interest of the business class and industries. Great Britain used their colonies to accumulate wealth, and trade routes in Asia allowed them to invest in industrial growth

Other

Inventions in the cotton industry moved away from hand-based techniques to mechanized spinning and weaving inventions that saved labor time.

Spread of Industrialization

Western Europe

Although British entrepreneurs and government officials forbade export of machinery, manufacturing techniques, and skilled workers, technologies spread to France, Germany, and Belgium.

Belgium: coal, iron, textiles, glass production flourished.

France: employed British workers to establish textile industry and railroads

Germany: coal, iron, and railroad production rivaled England by 1871 after its political unification

• Access to raw materials: Belgium and Germany had coal deposits for powering factories

• British technology transfer: skilled workers and engineers brought new technologies and machinery from Britain to other countries

• Government policies facilitated industrial development through infrastructure investments and trade regulations

North America

Cotton textile industry: new machinery and techniques made it possible to extend the factory system to other industries too

Natural resources: abundant in resources such as cotton that was in high demand. Large forests allowed access to wood for smelting iron and construction, Plentiful coal fields in Appalachian mountains.

Transportation infrastructure:

• Waterways: waterways moved people and goods. Canals such as Erie Canal and waterways such as Mississippi river allowed steamboats to regularly navigate.

• Railroad Transportation: Transcontinental railroad connected west and east

Northern Elites and Businessman: Entrepreneurs invested in industrial factories for profit from agricultural opportunities.

• Captain of Industry: Cornelius Vanderbilt (railroad), Andrew Carnegie (steel), Rockefeller (oil) were successful business who grew wealthy

Immigration: America had few restrictions on immigration. Open immigration policies allowed population growth, urbanization, and low-wage labor.

Russia

Military Defeats: After Russia lost the Crimean War, they started to industrialize because they feared they would fall behind

Abolishment of serfdom (a form of feudalism): allowed for factory sytem who needed workers not tied to a land

count Sergei White: implemented policies designed to stimulate economic development → known as “Witte system”

• Railway construction

• Model the state banking system, encourage savings banks

• Implement high tariffs on imported goods

• Secure funds from western Europe to finance industrialization

Japan

Military defeats: the Japanese Shogun accepted American demands to open up trade which led to them being overthrown and Japan entered the Meiji Restoration.

Meiji Government:

• Obtain knowledge from Europe and United States

• Sent students abroad to study technology and constitutions

• Foreign experts to facilitate economic development

• Modernize and industrialize western models which included embracing the idea of a Japanese nation whose citizens worked together for a better state

• Mandatory, state-funded education programs to teach literacy and state-sanctioned values

• Created modern transportation, communication, and education infrastructure

• Fostered more integrated unified national economy that made it easter to transport goods, stimulating trade and industrialization

• Universities offered advanced education for students, especially science and technology

Topic 4: Technological Innovations

First Industrial Revolution (late 1700s-1870)

Textiles, Iron, Steam Power

Textile Industry: many innovations that allowed for industrialization and mass production of goods. The textile industry was Britain’s biggest industry

• Spinning Jenny: allowed individuals to increased productivity

• Flying shuttle: machines increased outputs and demand

• Steam engine: Produce textile goods in grate volume, more variety, and lower cost

Mass Production

Factory System: Worker productivity improved, increased outputs in large quantities, and workers were now paid in hours worked

• Centralization of production in cities

• Workers have specialized tasks

• Impose strict working discipline, close supervision of employees

Transportation

Steam locomotives: less fuel needed and more efficient → carry larger cargoes and decrease transportation costs

Transportation networks formed: linked together industrial centers and transported goods and people faster

Steamboat: did not rely on wind and therefore provided rapid transportation and lowered costs → carry larger cargoes and advance in rivers to where steamboats could not access

Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1920)

Steel, Oil, Electricity, Chemicals

Bessemer Converter Process: availability of cheap steel led to construction of larger bridges, railroads, skyscrapers, and more powerful machines. Military also had more powerful weapons

Electrification: producing power and delivering it to the user

• Provided light in public

• Powered electric cars

• “City that never sleeps” due to 24/7 factory production using electricity

• Design skyscrapers

Internal Combustion Engine: ignite fuel source inside engine that revolutionized tranposrtation technology

• Diesel engine: source of power of large machines

Chemical manufacturing:

• Increased food production

• New products with artificial materials

• Agricultural fertilizer: increased food with fewer workers

• Rubber and plastic: had many uses and were found in consumer products

Communication

Telegraph:

• Faster communication

• Link regions with colonies → helped European empires maintain control over their subjects

• Military forces communicate easily → imperial powers increased

Mass Production

Assembly Line:

• Workers specialize in tasks → increased productivity

• Allowed for mass production → increased production speeds, lowered costs, and increased profits

Transportation

Railroads:

• Primary method of moving goods and people

• Faster way of travel, more cheap

• Transcontinental railway: linked all US regions and helped created an integrated national economy

• Spurred development of other industries

Topic 5: Social Effects and Reactions to Industrial Capitalism

New Social Classes

Disappearance of slave class

Enterprising business people → the new wealthy and privileged

Middle class → benefited from industrialization

Working class → exploited: tended to machines, low wages, and poor living conditions

Family Life

Introduced sharp distinction between work and family life → live separate lives

Men were responsible for bulk of the family income

Work and Play

Men became dominant in society → became owners or managers, usually main providers for their families

Women

Society did not expect women to work and encouraged women to devote themselves to raising children, management of home, and preservation of traditional family values

• Working-Class Women

  • Expected to work before marriage, and after marriage was confined to the home

  • Were payed less than men and therefore could not support themselves

  • Manufacturers believed smaller hands gave better dexterity so they were in demand as workers in factories

  • Typically worked as domestic servants or workers

• Middle-Class Women:

  • Generally did not work outside the home

  • Conformed to the household and pressure to behavior revolving around roles as mothers and wives

Children

Child labor was abusive and children worked long hours

Child labor laws later restricted use of child labor

Redefined role for children: Mandatory education laws, stemmed from moral concerns and recognition of the need for a highly skilled na educated labor force, redefined role of children from workers to students attending school

Living Conditions / Standards of Living (in Urban Environment)

Environmental pollution: water and air pollution led to occupation diseased due to increased factory production and industrialization without health and safety regulations

Tainted water and unsanitary living conditions led to epidemics and increased death rates

Income determined living conditions. Working class lived in cramped, unsanitary apartments that transmitted diseases easily

Socialism and Communism

Socialism:

• Against problems generated by capitalism (economic inequality, difference between captain of industry and a factory laborer, exploitation of working class)

• Most prominent were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Communism:

• Abolition of private property

• Radically egalitarian (equal) society

• State will wither away and coercive institutions (such as police forces) will disappear since there will no longer be exploitation classes

• Working class will rebel to seize control of the state to distribute wealth equally

Social Reforms

The Factory Act of 1833

• Regulated excessive child labor

• Limited hours children could work

Education Act of England

• Made education mandatory for children ages 5-10 years

• Prohibited underground employment (coal mines) for women and children

Legislations to protect women’s family roles also reduced women’s economic opportunities

European countries, led by Germany, adopted social reform programs:

• Retirement pension

• Minimum wage laws

• Sickness, accident, and unemployment insurance

• Regulation of hours and conditions at work

Trade Unions

Trade unions began 1800 in response to unsafe working conditions, low pay, and long hours. Workers banded together to put pressure for reforms

Strikers: workers refuse to wrk until demands are met

→ Western Governments, such as Great Britain, passed laws that gave into union demands

→ Made employers more responsive to employee’s needs and interests

Topic 6: Global Response to the Industrial Revolution (Japan, Egypt, and Russia)

Topic 7: Global Response to the Industrial Revolution (China and Ottoman Empire)

KEY POINT: China and the Ottoman Empire were unsuccessful in their attempts to modernize and industrialize because of the limited government support for these reforms. Unlike Japan where extensive reforms and modernization was encouraged, China and Ottoman Empires had many factors that hindered them from becoming modernized from the government.