APUSH Test Review

CIVIL WAR

Election of 1860

The Election of 1860 took place on November 6, 1860, during a time of intense division in the United States over slavery and states' rights. The election featured four major candidates: Abraham Lincoln (Republican), Stephen A. Douglas (Northern Democrat), John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat), and John Bell (Constitutional Union Party). Lincoln won the presidency despite receiving less than 40% of the popular vote, securing victory due to the Democratic Party’s split between Northern and Southern factions. His election was significant because it led to the secession of Southern states, beginning with South Carolina, as they feared Lincoln would abolish slavery. This ultimately set the stage for the Civil War, making the election one of the most consequential in U.S. history.

Emancipation Proclamation

The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War. It declared that all enslaved people in Confederate-held territories were to be freed, shifting the war’s focus from preserving the Union to ending slavery. While it did not immediately free all enslaved individuals, it was a crucial step toward abolition, preventing European nations from supporting the Confederacy and allowing Black soldiers to join the Union Army. The proclamation paved the way for the 13th Amendment, which officially abolished slavery in the United States in 1865.

Anaconda Plan

The Anaconda Plan was a Union military strategy developed at the start of the Civil War in 1861 by General Winfield Scott. Its goal was to defeat the Confederacy by cutting off its resources through a naval blockade of Southern ports and by gaining control of the Mississippi River to split the Confederacy in two. The plan aimed to strangle the South’s economy, much like an anaconda squeezing its prey, by preventing the export of cotton and the import of war supplies. Although initially criticized for being too slow, it ultimately contributed to the Union’s victory by weakening the Confederate war effort over time.

Turning Point Battles: Antietam, Gettysburg and Vicksburg

The battles of Antietam (1862), Gettysburg (1863), and Vicksburg (1863) were crucial turning points in the American Civil War. The Battle of Antietam (September 17, 1862) was the bloodiest single-day battle in U.S. history and gave President Lincoln the opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, shifting the war’s focus to ending slavery. The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863) marked the turning point in the Eastern Theater, as it ended Robert E. Lee’s invasion of the North and forced the Confederacy onto the defensive. Meanwhile, the Siege of Vicksburg (May 18 – July 4, 1863) gave the Union full control of the Mississippi River, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two and fulfilling a key objective of the Anaconda Plan. Together, these battles shifted momentum in favor of the Union, making Confederate victory increasingly unlikely.

NYC Draft Riots

The New York City Draft Riots took place from July 13 to July 16, 1863, during the American Civil War, as a violent response to the Union’s new Conscription Act, which drafted men into military service. Many working-class, predominantly Irish immigrants, were outraged because wealthier men could pay $300 to avoid the draft, while they were forced to fight. The riots quickly turned into racial violence, as white mobs targeted Black residents, blaming them for the war. Over 100 people were killed, and Black-owned businesses and homes were destroyed. The riots were only suppressed after Union troops were sent in, demonstrating deep divisions over the war and racial tensions in the North.

Gettysburg Address

The Gettysburg Address was a short but powerful speech delivered by President Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Given just four months after the Union’s victory at the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln’s speech emphasized the principles of equality from the Declaration of Independence and reaffirmed the Union’s commitment to preserving democracy. In just 272 words, he honored the soldiers who died in battle and called on the nation to ensure that “government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” The speech became one of the most iconic in American history, symbolizing the fight for freedom and unity.

13th Amendment

The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified on December 6, 1865, and officially abolished slavery in the United States. Proposed by Congress on January 31, 1865, near the end of the Civil War, it declared that "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." This amendment permanently ended legal slavery, going beyond the Emancipation Proclamation, which had only freed enslaved people in Confederate-held territories. The 13th Amendment marked a major step toward civil rights, though struggles for racial equality continued in the years that followed.

Lincoln’s 2nd Inaugural Address

Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address was delivered on March 4, 1865, as the Civil War was coming to an end. Unlike his first inaugural speech, which focused on preserving the Union, this speech emphasized healing and reconciliation between the North and South. Lincoln acknowledged that slavery was the root cause of the war and framed it as a moral struggle. Instead of blaming the Confederacy, he called for forgiveness and national unity, famously stating, "With malice toward none, with charity for all." His speech urged Americans to work together to rebuild the nation and care for those affected by the war. Tragically, Lincoln was assassinated just over a month later, leaving his vision of peace and unity to be carried out by others.

RECONSTRUCTION

14th Amendment

The 14th Amendment, ratified on July 9, 1868, granted citizenship to all people born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved individuals. It also guaranteed equal protection under the law, limiting state governments from infringing on civil rights. This amendment was a key part of Reconstruction, aimed at securing rights for freed African Americans and overturning the Dred Scott decision (1857), which had denied Black Americans citizenship.

15th Amendment

Ratified on February 3, 1870, the 15th Amendment granted African American men the right to vote, stating that the right to vote "shall not be denied… on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." However, many Southern states later undermined this right through poll taxes, literacy tests, and other restrictions.

Freedmen’s Bureau

Established in March 1865, the Freedmen’s Bureau was a federal agency created to help formerly enslaved people and poor Southern whites transition to freedom after the Civil War. It provided food, housing, education, and legal assistance, and helped negotiate labor contracts. However, it faced strong resistance from Southern whites, and its funding was cut in 1872, leading to its closure.

Reconstruction Act

The Reconstruction Act of 1867 laid out the process for readmitting Southern states into the Union after the Civil War. It divided the South into five military districts, required states to draft new constitutions guaranteeing Black suffrage, and ratify the 14th Amendment before rejoining the Union. This act aimed to enforce racial equality but faced violent resistance.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the first federal law granting citizenship and equal protection under the law to African Americans. It aimed to counteract Black Codes and ensure that all citizens had the same legal rights. Although President Andrew Johnson vetoed the law, Congress overrode his veto, marking a major victory for Reconstruction.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was designed to prohibit racial discrimination in public places such as theaters, hotels, and transportation. However, it was poorly enforced, and in 1883, the Supreme Court ruled parts of the law unconstitutional, paving the way for Jim Crow segregation in the South.

Resistance to Reconstruction: KKK, White League

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was founded in 1865 as a terrorist organization aiming to intimidate and suppress African American political participation through violence, lynching, and voter suppression. The White League (formed in 1874) was a similar group, openly working to overthrow Reconstruction governments and restore white supremacy through organized violence.

Black Codes

After the Civil War, Southern states passed Black Codes, restrictive laws designed to limit the freedom of African Americans and force them into low-wage labor. These laws restricted voting, property ownership, and movement, making Black Americans economically dependent on white landowners.

Voting restrictions for African Americans established during Reconstruction

Even after the 15th Amendment, Southern states implemented barriers to suppress Black voting, including:

• Poll taxes – A fee required to vote, which many Black Americans could not afford.

• Literacy tests – Often unfair and designed to fail Black voters.

• Grandfather clauses – Allowed only those whose grandfathers had voted before the Civil War to vote, excluding most Black men.

• Intimidation & Violence – Groups like the KKK used threats, beatings, and murder to keep African Americans from the polls.

These restrictions effectively disenfranchised Black voters until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, leading to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which finally outlawed these discriminatory practices.

NEW SOUTH AND NEW WEST

“New South”

The term “New South” emerged after the Civil War, particularly in the 1880s, as a vision for a Southern economy that would be less dependent on slavery and agriculture and more oriented toward industrialization, modernization, and economic diversification. Promoted by influential Southern leaders, this concept aimed to transform the South into a region that would be economically competitive with the industrial North. However, the "New South" still faced significant challenges, including racial segregation, Jim Crow laws, and an economy dominated by agriculture, especially cotton.

Henry Grady

Henry Grady (1850–1889) was an influential Southern journalist and the chief proponent of the "New South" movement. As the editor of the Atlanta Constitution, Grady championed the idea of a modernized South, emphasizing industrial growth, urbanization, and racial reconciliation between North and South. Grady’s vision sought to blend industrial development with the region’s agricultural traditions, but his ideas often glossed over the region's deep-seated racial tensions and inequalities.

Homestead Act

The Homestead Act, signed into law by Abraham Lincoln on May 20, 1862, provided 160 acres of public land to any adult citizen (or intended citizen) who was willing to cultivate the land for at least five years. This act aimed to promote the settlement of the West and encourage farming by offering affordable land to poor families and individuals. However, the act led to conflicts with Native Americans and was often exploited by land speculators.

Pacific Railway Act

The Pacific Railway Act was passed by Congress in 1862 to promote the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad, connecting the East Coast to the West Coast. It provided land grants and government bonds to railroad companies, particularly the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads. The railroad dramatically changed the nation’s transportation system, facilitating westward expansion, trade, and settlement, but also contributing to the displacement of Native American tribes and environmental damage.

“A Century of Dishonor”: Helen Hunt Jackson

Helen Hunt Jackson’s book, “A Century of Dishonor” (1881), was a scathing critique of the U.S. government’s treatment of Native Americans. Through a detailed account of broken treaties, unjust policies, and violent conflicts, Jackson highlighted the injustices faced by Native Americans in the 19th century. Her work helped raise public awareness about Native American issues and was a catalyst for the Indian reform movement, though it didn’t lead to significant policy changes at the time.

Dawes Act

The Dawes Act (also known as the General Allotment Act) was passed in 1887 to encourage the assimilation of Native Americans into mainstream American society. It allowed the federal government to divide tribal lands into individual plots, which were then distributed to Native American families. The goal was to turn Native Americans into land-owning farmers, but the policy resulted in the loss of millions of acres of Native land and undermined tribal sovereignty. It also furthered the assimilation policy by breaking up Native cultures and traditions.

Assimilation policy

The Assimilation Policy was a series of government efforts to integrate Native Americans into mainstream white society. It involved trying to erase Native American cultures, languages, and traditions in favor of adopting Western ways of life, such as farming and Christianity. Key examples of this policy include the Dawes Act, the forced boarding school system, and efforts to convert Native Americans to Christianity. This policy, aimed at reducing Native Americans’ distinct cultural identity, had devastating impacts on their communities and way of life.

Reservation system

The Reservation System was a policy by which the U.S. government designated specific areas of land, known as reservations, for Native American tribes to live on, typically in regions with less valuable land. The goal of this system was to concentrate Native Americans on limited plots of land while opening up the rest of the country for settlement and economic development. However, the system was highly detrimental to Native communities, leading to the loss of their traditional lands, resources, and autonomy, as well as forced relocation and cultural suppression.