chapter 1

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from the lecture on scientific method, theory, variables, sampling, and ethics.

Bias

A systematic tendency or preconception that can influence observations and conclusions; scientists strive to identify and minimize bias.

Assumptions

Beliefs treated as true baseline in science (e.g., that events follow natural laws) that shape how researchers interpret data.

Lawfulness (in science)

The idea that natural phenomena follow consistent, testable rules rather than magical explanations.

Hypothesis

A testable educated guess about what will happen in an experiment.

Replication

Repeating a study's procedures and experiments to see if results hold; essential for validating findings.

Theory

A broad, evidence-based framework that explains many findings; usually cannot be proven, but is supported by extensive data.

Pseudoscience

Claims that resemble science but lack rigorous empirical support and rely on testimonials or marketing.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in real-world settings without manipulating the environment.

Case study

In-depth study of a single person or group, often used when controlled experiments aren’t feasible.

Correlational study

A study examining relationships between variables, which cannot establish causation.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables; indicates direction (positive/negative) and strength, not causation.

Positive correlation

Both variables move in the same direction (e.g., as one increases, the other increases).

Negative correlation

Variables move in opposite directions (e.g., as one increases, the other decreases).

Independent variable (IV)

The variable the researcher deliberately changes to test its effect.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV.

Confounding variable

An extra variable that can affect results and obscure the true relationship between IV and DV.

Operational definition

A precise description of how a variable is measured or defined for the study.

Random sample

A sampling method where every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

Representative sample

A sample that reflects the population’s key subgroups and characteristics.

Control group

Participants not exposed to the experimental manipulation; used as a baseline for comparison.

Experimental group

Participants who receive the manipulation being tested.

Informed consent

Permission granted by participants after being informed of what the study involves and any potential risks.

Voluntary participation

Participation that is freely chosen; coercion is not allowed in ethical research.

Deception

Withholding or misleading information about aspects of the study; allowed only when justified and followed by safeguards.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants’ data and identities from disclosure.

Ethics

Moral principles guiding research, including informed consent, minimizing harm, and privacy.

Third variable

An unmeasured variable that can influence both observed variables and create a spurious relationship.

Big Bang theory

A widely supported theory about the universe’s origin; explains evidence across many studies and remains a theory because it cannot be directly observed.

Falsified data

Data that are fabricated or manipulated, undermining scientific integrity and credibility.