core ideologies: liberalism

What is the importance of individualism in liberalism

Liberals stress the importance of the individual. Individuals possess self-awareness, capabilities, personality and free will to decide their own identity

What is the importance of freedom in liberalism?

The ability and right of an individual to make decisions in their own interests. Such freedom is not absolute and has to be exercised under the law

How does human nature link to freedom/ liberty

Early liberals argued that the human need for individual freedom overrode the claims of authoritarian governments to make decisions for the people and regulate their lives

What do classical liberals (like Mill) suggest about freedom

Advocated for negative freedom whereby individuals should only be subject to external restraints when their actions may adversely affect others

What do modern liberals (like Green) argue about liberty

Rejects Mill’s view as too limited as it reduced society to a collection of independent individuals. Green argued that society was organic and people pursue both the common good and their own individual interests

What is negative freedom

Individuals should only be subjected to external restraint when their actions may adversely affect others (links to Mill’s harm principle)

What is positive freedom

Individuals should control their own destiny, develop personal talents and reach self-fulfilment. Limited state intervention would be required to facilitate this (ie. through education and welfare provision)

What is developmental individualism

the state, by intervening, can assist in individual’s development (pioneered by T.H. Green)

How does human nature link to individualism

All individuals are unique and have equal worth- the should not be treated as a means and instead should be regarded as having their own intrinsic value

What do classical liberals emphasise in individualism

Egotistical individualism- people are self-seeking and self-reliant

How does society link to individualism in classical liberalism

Classical liberals would say that we are living in an atomistic society- there is no collective common good we are all trying to reach- people succeed and fail on their own accord. We are naturally competitive with individuals pursuing their own interests

How does society link to individualism in modern liberalism

Modern liberals downplay the pursuit of self-interest by stressing developmental individualism- which links individual freedom with the creation of a society where every human can experience personal growth and achieve their potential

How does the state link to individualism

Developmental individualism has been used to justify limited state intervention in society to help the disadvantaged

How does individualism link to tolerance

Liberals believe that everyone should have the right to have their values, customs and beliefs accepted even if someone disagrees- they see this as a natural right

What is the relationship between liberalism and the state

Tend to see the state as a necessary evil, but also seek to limit is power (mostly focusing on providing security and safety

What is the classical liberal view on the state

The state should be small, limited to maintaining law and order and protecting society from invasion, so that it does not infringe on individual freedom and respects formal equality

What is the modern liberal view on the state

State intervention can be justified on the grounds of social justice, equality and social welfare. They are more supportive of enabling the state as this is the only way it can provide this service. Nonetheless, the power of the state should be controlled by constitutional rules and robust democracy

Why is state power suspect for liberals

Human nature is fundamentally self-seeking, so people may use any position of power to benefit themselves at the expense of others. This would encourage people to use each other as a means to an end, therefore limited government is preferred

What is a limited government based on

constitutionalism, the separation of powers, check and balances and a bill of rights (can be seen in US politics, with the prevention of the concentration of state power being achieved through federalism)

What is the liberal view of the economy

18th and 19th century liberals embraced laissez-faire capitalism, involving economic competition, based on individuals striving to generate their own profits, benefiting everyone. This should allow government to keep intervention in the economy to a minimum

What does Adam Smith say about liberal economy

The Wealth of Nations (1776)- argues that human self-interest was a key driving force behind economic growth

What is the classical liberal view on the economy

the economy should be based on free markets, free trade and a lack of state intervention since, according to Laissez-faire economic, the success of the market is enhanced when the state does not intervene

What is the modern liberal view on the economy

Capitalism can cause injustices and these should be reduced by the state through welfare, equality of opportunity and limited redistribution of income (therefore more state intervention)

What is rationalism

Humans are guided by reason rather than emotion, instinct or prejudice. This was central to enlightenment thinking, rejecting unquestioning acceptance of traditional authority and religion

How does rationalism link to human nature

Humans need to be free to make decisions for their own interests without being directed by external agencies (eg. state/ church). Individuals benefit from taking responsibility for themselves rather than relying on external guidance

What does rationalism cause in society

Fosters a progressive society since individuals have the opportunity of personal development, which promotes wider social advancement

Due to rationalism, what should be used to resolve disputes and conflicts

Reasoned discussion and debates (eg. arbitration in employer-trade union disputes)

What does Mill say about rationalism in relation to the state

we should limit state power to prevent it from becoming more powerful

What does Russell say about rationalism and the state

we have outgrown the need for religion to control us and instead we should focus on our own reason when making decisions

What is the liberal view on equality and social justice

Humans share the same essential nature and are therefore equal. Nonetheless, liberals are divided over what equality actually means in practice

What do modern liberals think about equality and social justice

Have a greater emphasis on justice- a morally justifiable distribution of wealth that implies a decide to limit inequality in society to some extent

What is liberal democracy

This is based on free elections, a neutral state with limited powers and recognition of civil liberties and toleration of different viewpoints

What is equality of opportunity

Everyone should have the same chance to rise or fall in society. Humans have different abilities and potential, which they should be free to fulfil

How does equality and social justice link to state intervention

Modern liberals believe some state intervention is acceptable to enable individuals to fulfill their potential role and be treated fairly by society. Complete equality of outcome is neither achievable nor desirable

What is formal equality

people should have the same legal and political rights, based in equality before the law and equal voting rights

What is foundational equality

All people are born equal. They possess inalienable human rights which are universal and cannot be removed by the state or social groups

What is social inequality

Liberals believe some social inequality is acceptable as people with different talents require different rewards. Society benefits because individuals have an incentive to strive and fulfil their potential, creating a meritocracy where social position it achieved by effort and ability

What is meritocracy

although inequality is natural in a free society, in a just society those with great abilities, drive and creativity deserve more rewards- pioneered by Rawls

Where does classical liberalism date to

18th century- linked to the emergence of industrial capitalism

What are the liberal views on the nature of the state (both classical and liberal)

State should function according to pre-set regulations and practices, decentralised so that power is fragmented and dispersed (eg. through devolution), Guarantee citizen’s rights and protect civil liberties, Exercise the authority subject to the consent of the governed

What are the classical liberal views on the state

The state should be limited, acting more as a ‘night watchman’ state, providing security and safety, must intervene to uphold the rule of law and protect society from foreign invasion (therefore institutions like the police, army, law and judiciary are necessary), has an essential obligation to protect property as property ownership is a fundamental freedom. They should also prevent breach of contracts and fraud, must maintain an orderly environment for private trade, sustain the value/stability of the currency and establish conditions under which the free market can flourish

What do classical liberals believe about the state in relation to welfare

the state should not provide welfare as this will just make individuals dependent on the state (leads to immoral and self-indulgent behaviour). Rugged individualism will make society more dynamic as they will have to succeed on their own efforts and merits. Individual behaviour should be as unrestricted as possible, so long as social stability is maintained

What are the shared views on the economy

Both believe in a market-based capitalist economy as it reflects the private property as a natural right, compliments liberal individualism through economic self-striving and is seen to benefit everyone (keeps with liberal optimism and belief in progress)

What do classical liberals believe about the economy

Economic activity should be based on the free market and Laissez faire principles

What is laissez faire capitalism

advocated by Adam Smith (1776)- proposed that capitalism and wealth creation are enhanced if the state does not integrate with the markets for goods, services and labour (state operating through the invisible hand of market, the wealth of successful individuals would trickle down to the rest of society, improving the lives if the rest of the population- rests on egotistical individualism and human rationalism )

How do Classical liberals believe that free trade can be promoted globally (what had to be scrapped)

All forms of domestic economic protection (eg. duties and tariffs), had to be scrapped to promote free trade globally and bring about the ‘wealth of nations’. Countries and their businesses communities could engage in unrestricted trade to their mutual benefit

What is the mechanistic theory of state

The state is not organic but was created by individuals to serve them and act in their interests.

What is the classical liberal (Nozick’s) view on taxation

Nozick argued that the taxation the state demanded infringed in citizen freedoms and believed that “tax, for the most part, is theft”

What is the neo-liberal view on state and the economy

See the role of government as being limited to controlling inflation (through monetarism), which emphasises the need for governments to show restraint in their role as monopolists over the supply for money

What is the classical liberal view on human nature

individuals are rational/ capable of rationality and prefer to pursue their enlightened self-interest

What is the classical liberal view on society

Society is naturally competitive, being made up of free individuals pursuing their own interests. Atomistic society means that there is no broader ‘public interest’ or ‘common good’ that individuals have to serve. people succeed of fail by their own efforts

Where did modern liberalism emerge from

Early 20th century, as a reaction against free-market capitalism

What is the modern liberal belief on the free market

The free market has not produced freedom for everybody because freedom cannot be defined as just being left alone by the state. They argue that the market has to be regulated to combat inequality and poverty

What is the modern liberal view on formal equality

Does not lead to equality of opportunity because it permits significant inequalities (in wealth and living standards) that prevent real equality of opportunity

What do modern liberals believe about developmental individualism

It should be promoted by society through an interventionist state and a managed economy. Individualism can be assisted through collective action such as state intervention to alleviate the effects of poverty and social deprivation (Development individualism can be seen in the expansion of the welfare state in Western democracies after WW2)

What do modern liberals believe about positive freedom

It is required to establish real equality of opportunity as some state intervention is necessary to develop a personal talents and allow them to reach self-fulfilment

What are the ideas behind Keynesian economics

The government should increase demand in order to boost growth. The primary driving force in an economy is consumer demand. (supports the expansionary fiscal policy, which uses government spending on education, unemployment benefits, and infrastructure as its main tools.)

What is the modern liberal view on economics

Draws on Keynesianism- Economic management of capitalism (based on government spending and fiscal policies to regulate demand) is needed to ensure the smooth running of the economy.

what are modern liberal views on the welfare state?

the injustices thrown up by capitalism should be reduced by the state through welfare, equality of opportunity and limited redistribution of income

What is dirigisme

State-directed capitalism. Capitalism needs to be preserved but the free market is not self-regulating since it is prone to cynical slumps (bringing mass unemployment and loss of freedom). Therefore the government is required to guide the economy and regulate demand

How do modern liberals expect the government to react to an economic slump

Introduce public spending programmes to create jobs and stimulate the economy

What is the modern liberal view on the state

Call for an enabling state as it has a social responsibility to reduce/ remove social and economic disadvantages if individuals are held back by their social circumstances. taxation could provide welfare (without introducing equality of outcome)

What is the modern liberal view on human nature

Slightly more optimistic- individuals crave freedom but also understand that they have obligations to help others less fortunate

What is the modern liberal view on society

society should embrace a degree of social welfare and social justice. individualism should be tempered with social action and recognition of a common good

What type of liberal is Locke

Classical

What is Locke’s idea of the social contract theory

Society, state and government are based on a voluntary agreement/ contract. Citizens obey the state’s laws on the understanding that the state will guarantee them certain rights. If these rights are not upheld by the state, the governed are no longer obliged to obey the state’s laws

What is this social contract theory based on

Reason- rational people would not willingly submit to arbitrary rule (power without legal restraints) because it was not in their interest to do so. The state should serve the individual

What is Locke’s idea on limited government

Government should be limited by a constitution’s rules and procedures, and be based on consent from citizens/ limited government had been rejected in the arbitrary rule of mediaeval monarchy and the divine right of kings

What is Locke’s interpretation of human nature

During the state of nature, the human race was underpinned by natural laws, natural liberties and natural rights. These freedoms were extremely desirable and so the state must not encroach on them. Humans are guided by self interest but are concerned for others

What is Locke’s interpretation of the state

People would accept the authority of this ‘true’ state as long as they fulfilled their side of the contract (upholding natural rights eg. the right to property and liberty)- If the state broke its contract with the people they would be entitled to oppose or remove it

What is Locke’s belief on limited government

The government is limited to representing the interests of the people and gaining their ongoing consent. The limited nature of the state is achieved by the principle of constitutionalism with a clear separation of powers

What is Locke’s view on society and tolerance

There should be tolerance between alternative religious and political views. He saw these as an area of private conscience. Nonetheless, Locke was against extending toleration to atheists

What was Locke’s view on the economy

The state should have limited power to interfere. Private property is a natural right and the state’s role is merely to arbitrate between individuals competing for trade and resources

What type of liberal was Mary Wollstonecraft

Classical liberal

What is the name of Mary Wollstonecraft’s book

A vindication of the rights of woman (1792)- drawing on enlightenment philosophy to argue that women were guided by reason

What is the reasoning behind the work of Mary Wollstonecraft

Women are rational and independent beings capable of reason

What is Wollstonecraft’s understanding of formal equality

In order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career

What is Wollstonecraft’s interpretation of human nature

Should be viewed optimistically. Since both men and women are able to act in a rational way, women should be entitled to the same rights of men- ‘the mind has no gender’

What was Wollstonecraft’s interpretation of the state

She supported social contract ideas from Locke. She viewed the divine right of kings as an absurdity and was a vocal support of both the US revolution (1776) and the French revolution (1789)

What was Wollstonecraft’s interpretation of society

To be equal and free, women should enjoy fill civil liberties and be able to pursue a career rather than be economically dependent on men. Formal education was vital in this process since it would give women and men self-respect and help them to realise their potential. Marriage had to be a truly equal partnership so that women could choose freely between having a family or career

What was Wollstonecraft’s interpretation of the economy

liberated women would thrive and enhance the free-market economy

What type of liberal is J.S. Mill

Signalled the transition from classical to modern liberalism

What was the book that Mill wrote

On Liberty (1859)

What is the harm principle

Individuals should be free to do anything as long as no harm will come to others. This was linked to the classical concepts of negative freedom, limited government and tolerance

What are Mill’s views on tolerance

Being prepared to accept values, customs and beliefs with which one usually disagrees with

What is Mill’s view on human nature

Human actions are either ‘self regarding’ (affecting only the person undertaking the action- eg. religious beliefs/ personal views) or ‘other regarding’ (affecting other people)

What is Mill’s opinion of the state

There should be restraint of the state by leaving individuals to be able to take whatever actions the judged fit, providing this does not harm others (look into spanner case)

what is the difference between self regarding actions and other regarding actions

The state should not interfere with self regarding actions as they do not harm anyone, but the state should other-regarding actions did they harm the freedom of others- but if the other regarding actions are not harmful then these can also be tolerated

What is Mill's opinion of democracy

Should be a representative democracy and be mindful of minority rights. The state should also tolerate a diverse set of opinions

What was Mill’s later opinion of the state

Later, he believed that the state must intervene to help individuals attain developmental individualism (eg, the state must facilitate education)

What is Mill’s view on society

Endorsed tolerance and the right to hold a minority view- a widely-held opinion did not always make it correct. Individuality should coexist with tolerance and self-improvement, advocated for free speech, thought and religion unless these pose a direct threat to others- ie. negative freedom

Why is Mill categorised as favouring elite democracy

feared the dominance of the working class if they were given the vote- wanted plural votes for the educated and wealthy to prevent his own class being swept aside by the proletariat

What are Mill's views on the economy

Believes Laissez-faire capitalism promotes both individual intuition and progress

What type of liberal is John Rawls

Modern liberal, who attempted to construct a society where individual freedom coexisted with limited inequality

What is the name of Rawls’ book

A theory of justice (1971)

What is Rawls’ theory of justice

Society must be just a guarantee each citizen a life worth living

What is the veil of ignorance

Individuals agree on the type of society they want from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society. If individuals were asked to choose what type of society they’d prefer and were ignorant of their own circumstances, they would choose a society with little inequality