Results for "hydrogen bond"

1.2 Structure of Water & Hydrogen Bonding

9 Hydrogen Bonds Make Water Amazing

6.4 Hydrogen bonding

9 Hydrogen Bonds Make Water Amazing

BIO104 Chapter 2.2-2.3 Covalent bonds, Hydrogen bonds, Molecules, Water

UNIT 1 TOPIC 1: Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding

Daily Video 1.1: Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen Bonding

1.2 Intermolecular forces of attraction. Hydrogen bonds and biological meaning.

Unit 3 Part 1 - Properties of Substances & Mixtures

Hydrogen bonds

Topic 1.1: Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding Diagram | Quizlet

Topic 1.1: Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding Diagram | Quizlet

1.1 structure of water and hydrogen bonding

AP Biology - 1.1 Structure of Water + Hydrogen Bonding

BIOL 1140 Chapters 15-16 Review Worksheet KEY Define transcription Transcription is the process of creating RNA from DNA. Describe how only one strand of DNA is used as the template in transcription. Only one of the strands (3’-5’ strand) serves as a template; the other strand is unused. Identify the three steps of transcription and briefly what is happening in each step. Initiation - in this step, the enzyme *RNA polymerase attaches to a region of the gene called a promoter, and transcription starts Elongation – In elongation, the enzyme RNA polymerase zips along the DNA strand adding complementary nucleotides to the DN template. The newly made RNA is fed out the back of the enzyme, and the two DNA strands re-anneal (re-zip). Remember that adenine, guanine, and cytosine are used in making RNA, but uracil is used in place of thymine. Termination - in this step, RNA polymerase reaches a sequence of nucleotides on the DNA template called a terminator. RNA polymerase then detaches from the newly synthesized RNA and the DNA. *before RNA polymerase binds, a series of proteins called transcription factors first bind to the promoter. Once they bind, they “recruit” RNA polymerase to the promoter. The binding of RNA polymerase starts the transcription process Which of the following statements regarding transcription is not true? A. The three stages of transcription are initiation, elongation and termination B. The key enzyme responsible for transcription is RNA polymerase C. Transcription is the conversion of information from DNA nucleotides into RNA nucleotides D. Transcription in eukaryotes is regulated (in part) by the binding of transcription factors to the promoter E. All are true statements What is the name of the enzyme used in transcription? Where does this enzyme bind? RNA polymerase…it binds to the gene’s promoter (though it doesn’t bind directly to the DNA strand) Indicate if the following statements about codons, amino acids and the genetic code are true or false: ____True______ A codon is a three nucleotide sequence that codes for a specific amino acid ____ True ______ In the genetic code, a codon will code for only one amino acid; that is there is specificity on the genetic code. ____False______ Some codons consist of only two nucleotides. 🡪 all are three nucleotides _____False_____ Some amino acids are not specified by any codons. 🡪 all amino acids have their own set of codons ____ True ______ Some codons (“stop codons”) do not code for any amino acid. ____ True ______ More than one codon can code for the same amino acid; that is, there is redundancy in the genetic code. Define translation. Translation is the process of creating proteins from RNA. Match the key players in translation with their function Answers B_____ tRNA A) The kind of RNA that makes up a ribosome. D______ mRNA B) Acts as the ‘interpreter’ in translation, by bringing in amino acids. C_______ DNA C) The genetic information in a cell. A_______ rRNA D) The kind of RNA that codes for amino acids. E_______ Ribosome E) Where translation takes place. Identify the three steps of translation and briefly describe what is happening in each step. Initiation – First an mRNA molecule binds to the small ribosomal subunit. A special initiator tRNA binds to a specific codon called the start codon (AUG = methionine). The initiator tRNA which carries the amino acid methionine, binds its anticodon (UAC) to the start codon . Second, a large ribosomal subunit binds to the small one, creating a function ribosome. The initiator tRNA binds to one of two tRNA binding sites on the ribosome. Elongation - In elongation amino acids are added one-by-one to the first amino acid. Each addition occurs in a three-step process: 1st: the anticodon of an incoming tRNA molecule, carrying its amino acid, pairs with the mRNA codon. 2nd: the incoming amino acid attaches by peptide bond to the amino acid already present – the formation of the bond is catalyzed by the ribosome. 3rd : The tRNA already present moves over to the next site (the codon and anticodon remain hydrogen bonded and the mRNA and tRNA move over as a unit), allowing another tRNA to move in. The second amino acid is then added to the growing polypeptide chain. The process is repeated - the first tRNA leaves the ribosome, the second tRNA moves over, allowing room for the next to move in…the process is repeated over and over again Termination - Elongation continues until a stop codon reaches the ribosome (recall that a stop codon does not code for any amino acid). The completed polypeptide is freed from the tRNA and the ribosome splits back into two separate subunits. Which of the following statements regarding translation is not true? A. Translation is the conversion of information from nucleic acids to proteins B. Translation takes place in the nucleus C. During translation, amino acids are linked to one another by peptide bonds D. Polypeptides made during translation must still be modified to become fully-functioning mature proteins E. All are true statements

ENE-1.D = Describe the properties of enzymes. The structure of enzymes includes the active site that specifically interacts with substrate molecules For an enzyme-mediated chemical reaction to occur = the shape & charge of the substrate must be compatible with the active site of the enzyme ENE-1.E = Explain how enzymes affect the rate of biological reactions The structure and function of enzymes contribute to the regulation of biological processes Enzymes are biological catalysts that facilitate chemical reactions (speed up) in cells by lowering the activation energy ENE-1.F = Explain how changes to the structure of an enzyme may affect its function Change to the molecular structure of a component in an enzymatic system may result in a change of the function or efficiency of the system Denaturation of an enzyme occurs when the protein structure is disrupted → eliminating the ability to catalyze reactions Environmental temperatures & pH outside the optimal range for a given enzyme will cause changes to its structure → altering the efficiency with which it catalyzes reactions In some cases, enzyme denaturation is reversible → allowing the enzyme to regain activity ENE-1.G = Explain how the cellular environment affects enzyme activity Environmental pH can alter the efficiency of enzyme activity = including through disruption of hydrogen bonds that provide enzyme structure The relative concentrations of substrates & products determine how efficiently an enzymatic reaction proceeds Higher environmental temperatures increase the speed of movement of molecules in a solution → increasing the frequency of collisions between enzymes & substrates → therefore increasing the rate of reaction Competitive inhibitor molecules can bind reversibly or irreversibly to the active site of the enzyme Noncompetitive inhibitors can bind allosteric sites = changing the activity of the enzyme ENE-1.H = Describe the role of energy in living organisms All living systems require constant input of energy Life requires a highly ordered system & does not violate the second law of thermodynamics Energy input must exceed energy loss to maintain order & to power cellular processes Cellular processes that release energy may be coupled with cellular processes that require energy Loss of order or energy flow results in death Energy-related pathways in biological systems are sequential to allow for a more controlled & efficient transfer of energy A product of a reaction in a metabolic pathway is generally the reactant for the subsequent step in the pathway ENE-1.I = Describe the photosynthetic processes that allow organisms to capture & store energy Organisms capture & store energy for use in biological processes Photosynthesis captures energy from the sun & produces sugars Photosynthesis first evolved in prokaryotic organisms Scientific evidence supports the claim that prokaryotic (cyanobacterial) photosynthesis was responsible for the production of an oxygenated atmosphere Prokaryotic photosynthetic pathways were the foundation of eukaryotic photosynthesis The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in eukaryotes = involve a series of coordinated reaction pathways that capture energy present in light to yield ATP & NADPH (power the production of organic molecules) ENE-1.J = Explain how cells capture energy from light & transfer it to biological molecules for storage & use During photosynthesis = chlorophylls absorb energy from light = boosting electrons to a higher energy level in photosystems I & II Photosystems I & II are embedded in the internal membranes of chloroplasts & are connected by the transfer of higher energy electrons through an electron transport chain (ETC) When electrons are transferred between molecules in a sequence of reactions as they pass through the ETC = an electrochemical gradient of protons (hydrogen ions) is established across the internal membrane The formation of the proton gradient is linked to the synthesis of ATP from ADP & inorganic phosphate via ATP synthase The energy captured in the light reactions & transferred to ATP + NADPH = powers the production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle (which occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast) ENE-1.K = Describe the processes that allow organisms to use energy stored in biological macromolecules Fermentation & cellular respiration = use energy from biological macromolecules to produce ATP Respiration & fermentation = characteristic of all forms of life Cellular respiration in eukaryotes = involves a series of coordinated enzyme-catalyzed reactions that capture energy from biological macromolecules The electron transport chain = transfers energy from electrons in a series of coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient across membranes Electron transport chain reactions = occur in chloroplasts / mitochondria / prokaryotic plasma membranes In cellular respiration = electrons delivered by NADH & FADH2 = passed to a series of electron acceptors (as they move toward the terminal electron acceptor = oxygen) In photosynthesis = the terminal electron acceptor is NADP+ Aerobic prokaryotes = use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor anaerobic prokaryotes = use other molecules The transfer of electrons = accompanied by the formation of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane / the internal membrane of chloroplasts (with the membrane(s) separating a region of high proton concentration from a region of low proton concentration In prokaryotes = the passage of electrons is accompanied by the movement of protons across the plasma membrane. The flow of protons back through membrane-bound ATP synthase by chemiosmosis drives the formation of ATP from ADP & inorganic phosphate known as oxidative phosphorylation in cellular respiration photophosphorylation in photosynthesis In cellular respiration = decoupling oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport generates heat This heat can be used by endothermic organisms to regulate body temperature ENE-1.L = Explain how cells obtain energy from biological macromolecules in order to power cellular functions Glycolysis = a biochemical pathway that releases energy in glucose to form ATP from ADP & inorganic phosphate / NADH from NAD+ /pyruvate Pyruvate = transported from the cytosol to the mitochondrion = where further oxidation occurs In the Krebs cycle = carbon dioxide is released from organic intermediates = ATP is synthesized from ADP + inorganic phosphate & electrons are transferred to the coenzymes NADH + FADH2 Electrons extracted in glycolysis & Krebs cycle reactions = transferred by NADH & FADH2 to the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membranE When electrons are transferred between molecules in a sequence of reactions as they pass through the ETC = an electrochemical gradient of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane is established Fermentation allows glycolysis to proceed in the absence of oxygen & produces organic molecules (including alcohol & lactic acid = as waste products) The conversion of ATP to ADP = releases energy = which is used to power many metabolic processes SYI-3.A = Explain the connection between variation in the number & types of molecules within cells to the ability of the organism to survive and/or reproduce in different environments. Variation at the molecular level = provides organisms with the ability to respond to a variety of environmental stimuli Variation in the number & types of molecules within cells provides organisms a greater ability to survive and/or reproduce in different environments Kk

1.2-Water and hydrogen bonding

Properties of water and hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen bonding