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Here are the answers to your biology questions: 1. Definitions: * Metabolism: The sum total of all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism. * Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy. * Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input. * Endergonic Reaction: A reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed. * Exergonic Reaction: A reaction that releases energy. 2. Role of Enzymes in Metabolism: Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. They bind to specific substrates, forming an enzyme-substrate complex, and catalyze the reaction. This allows metabolic processes to occur at rates compatible with life. 3. Enzyme Activity: * Activation Energy: The minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur. * Catalyst: A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed in the process. * Active Site: The specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds. * Denaturation: The loss of an enzyme's shape and function, often due to extreme temperature or pH. * Substrate: The molecule upon which an enzyme acts. * Enzyme-Substrate Complex: A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate. * Suffix -ase: Commonly used to denote enzymes, such as sucrase, protease, and lipase. 4. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions in Cellular Respiration: In cellular respiration, oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons and hydrogen ions. Oxidation is the loss of electrons (and often hydrogen atoms), while reduction is the gain of electrons (and often hydrogen atoms). Energy is released during these reactions and is used to produce ATP. 5. Balanced Equation for Cellular Respiration: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP) 6. Structure of a Mitochondrion: * Outer Membrane: Encloses the mitochondrion. * Inner Membrane: Folded into cristae, increasing surface area for ATP production. * Intermembrane Space: The space between the outer and inner membranes. * Matrix: The fluid-filled space inside the inner membrane, containing enzymes for the citric acid cycle. 7. Glycolysis: Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. It occurs in the cytoplasm and produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules. 8. Citric Acid Cycle: The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. It completely oxidizes pyruvate, producing 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH₂ molecules per glucose molecule. 9. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation: The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ are transferred through the chain, releasing energy that is used to pump protons into the intermembrane space. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis through ATP synthase. 10. ATP and NADH Production: * Glycolysis: 2 ATP, 2 NADH * Citric Acid Cycle: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂ * Electron Transport Chain: ~32 ATP (from NADH and FADH₂) 11. Structure and Function of a Dicot Leaf: Dicot leaves are typically broad and flat, with a network of veins. They have a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss, stomata for gas exchange, and mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts for photosynthesis. 12. Structure of a Chloroplast: * Thylakoid: A flattened, disc-shaped sac. * Thylakoid Membrane: The membrane surrounding the thylakoid. * Thylakoid Space: The interior of the thylakoid. * Stroma: The fluid-filled space outside the thylakoids. * Grana: Stacks of thylakoids. 13. Site of Light-Dependent and Light-Independent Reactions: * Light-Dependent Reactions: Thylakoid membrane * Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle): Stroma 14. Balanced Equation for Photosynthesis: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ * Carbon (C) from CO₂ is incorporated into glucose. * Hydrogen (H) from water (H₂O) is incorporated into glucose. * Oxygen (O) from water is released as O₂. 15. Dual Nature of Light: Light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties. As a wave, it has a wavelength and frequency. As a particle, it consists of photons, discrete packets of energy. 16. Light Reactions: Light energy is absorbed by pigments in photosystems I and II, exciting electrons. These electrons are transferred through a series of electron carriers, generating ATP and NADPH. Water is split, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. 17. Calvin Cycle: The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to fix CO₂ from the atmosphere. CO₂ is incorporated into RuBP, forming 3-PGA. 3-PGA is reduced to G3P, which can be used to synthesize glucose or regenerate RuBP. 18. Role of Photosynthetic Pigments: Photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, absorb light energy and transfer it to the reaction center of photosystems. 19. Role of Photosystems: Photosystems I and II are protein complexes containing pigments and electron carriers. They absorb light energy and use it to excite electrons, initiating the electron transport chain. 20. Phases of the Calvin Cycle: * Carbon Fixation: CO₂ is fixed to RuBP, forming 3-PGA. * Reduction: 3-PGA is reduced to G3P using ATP and NADPH. * Regeneration of RuBP: G3P is used to regenerate RuBP, allowing the cycle to continue. 21. ATP, NADPH, and CO₂ Requirements: * To produce 1 G3P molecule: 9 ATP, 6 NADPH, and 3 CO₂ * To produce 1 glucose molecule: 18 ATP, 12 NADPH, and 6 CO₂ I
Updated 244d ago
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The Hydrogen Atom
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hydrogen atom
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Chapter Summary 2.1 The Importance of Chemistry in Anatomy and Physiology Chemicals are all around us. Household products such as soap and shampoo as well as food and medicine are comprised of chemicals. The human body is also made of chemicals. We begin our examination of anatomy and physiology with a study of basic chemistry. 2.2 Fundamentals of Chemistry Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. 1. Elements and atoms a. Naturally occurring matter on Earth is composed of ninety-two elements. b. Elements usually combine to form compounds. c. Elements are composed of atoms. d. Atoms of different elements vary in size, weight, and ways of interacting. 2. Atomic structure a. An atom consists of electrons surrounding a nucleus, which has protons and neutrons. The exception is hydrogen, which has only a proton in its nucleus. b. Electrons are negatively charged, protons positively charged, and neutrons uncharged. c. A complete atom is electrically neutral. d. The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom. 3. Isotopes a. Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers (due to differing numbers of neutrons). The atomic weight of an element is the average of the mass numbers of its various isotopes. b. All the isotopes of an element react chemically in the same manner. c. Some isotopes are radioactive and release atomic radiation. 4. Molecules and compounds a. Two or more atoms may combine to form a molecule. b. A molecular formula represents the numbers and types of atoms in a molecule. c. If atoms of the same element combine, they produce molecules of that element. d. If atoms of different elements combine, they form molecules called compounds. 2.3 Bonding of Atoms When atoms form links called bonds, they gain, lose, or share electrons. Electrons occupy space in areas called electron shells that encircle an atomic nucleus. Atoms with completely filled outer shells are inert, whereas atoms with incompletely filled outer shells gain, lose, or share electrons and thus become stable. 1. Ionic bonds a. Atoms that lose electrons become positively charged (cations); atoms that gain electrons become negatively charged (anions). b. Ions with opposite charges attract and join by ionic bonds. 2. Atoms that share electrons join by covalent bonds. a. Nonpolar molecules result from an equal sharing of electrons. b. Polar molecules result from an unequal sharing of electrons. c. Hydrogen bonds may form within and between polar molecules. 3. Chemical reactions a. In a chemical reaction, bonds between atoms, ions, or molecules break or form. Starting materials are called reactants; the resulting atoms or molecules are called products. b. Three types of chemical reactions are synthesis, in which large molecules build up from smaller ones; decomposition, in which molecules break down; and exchange reactions, in which parts of two different molecules trade positions. c. Many reactions are reversible. The direction of a reaction depends upon the proportion of reactants and products and the energy available. d. Catalysts (enzymes) influence the rate (not the direction) of the reaction. 2.4 Electrolytes, Acids and Bases, and Salts Compounds that ionize in water are electrolytes. 1. Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions are acids, and those that release hydroxide or other ions that react with hydrogen ions are bases. a. Acids and bases react to form water and electrolytes called salts. 2. Acid and base concentrations a. pH represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−) in a solution. b. A solution with equal numbers of H+ and OH− is neutral and has a pH of 7.0; a solution with more H+ than OH− is acidic (pH less than 7.0); a solution with fewer H+ than OH− is basic (pH greater than 7.0). c. A tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration separates each whole number in the pH scale. d. Buffers are chemicals that resist pH change. 2.5 Chemical Constituents of Cells Molecules containing carbon and hydrogen atoms are organic and are usually nonelectrolytes; other molecules are inorganic and are usually electrolytes. 1. Inorganic substances a. Water is the most abundant compound in the body. Many chemical reactions take place in water. Water transports chemicals and heat and helps release excess body heat. b. Oxygen releases energy for metabolic activities from glucose and other molecules. c. Carbon dioxide is produced when certain metabolic processes release energy. d. Inorganic salts provide ions needed in a variety of metabolic processes. e. Electrolytes must be present in certain concentrations inside and outside of cells. 2. Organic substances a. Carbohydrates provide much of the energy cells require and are built of simple sugar molecules. b. Lipids, such as triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, and steroids, supply energy and are used to build cell parts. 1) The building blocks of triglycerides are glycerol and three fatty acids. 2) The building blocks of phospholipids are glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. 3) Steroids include rings of carbon atoms and are synthesized in the body from cholesterol. c. Proteins serve as structural materials, energy sources, hormones, cell surface receptors, antibodies, and enzymes that speed chemical reactions without being consumed. 1) The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. 2) Proteins vary in the numbers and types of their constituent amino acids; the sequences of these amino acids; and their three-dimensional structures, or conformations. 3) Primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structure comes from attractions between amino acids that are close together in the primary structure. Tertiary structure reflects attractions of far-apart amino acids and folds the molecule. The amino acid sequence determines the protein’s conformation. 4) The protein’s conformation determines its function. 5) Exposure to excessive heat, radiation, electricity, or certain chemicals can denature proteins. d. Nucleic acids constitute genes, the instructions that control cell activities, and direct protein synthesis. 1) The two types are RNA and DNA. 2) Nucleic acid building blocks are nucleotides. 3) DNA molecules store information that cell parts use to construct specific proteins. 4) RNA molecules help synthesize proteins. 5) DNA molecules are replicated, and an exact copy of the original cell’s DNA is passed to each of the newly formed cells resulting from cell division.
Updated 293d ago
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The concept of moles in chemistry is famously difficult to explain and understand. A mole is an amount of something, such as a mole of carbon dioxide or a mole of glucose. By definition, a mole is 6.02214076 × 10^23 particles or things. The problem that the mole solves for chemists Chemists want to react things together in such a way that there's nothing left over, for example, when reacting hydrogen and fluorine to make hydrogen fluoride. They need the exact same number of hydrogens and fluorines to achieve this. Counting out individual atoms for this purpose is impractical. Using the relative masses of atoms to solve the problem Hydrogen atoms are lighter than fluorine atoms, so a specific mass ratio is needed to ensure the same number of atoms in each pile. The mass ratio for hydrogen and fluorine atoms in a chemical reaction is 1:1. The mass ratio can be used to determine the required amounts of each substance for a reaction. Understanding atomic masses and isotopes The mass of an atom is mainly in its nucleus, and isotopes can affect the atomic mass of an element. Hydrogen and oxygen atoms have slightly different atomic masses due to isotopes. The formal definition of atomic mass units is based on the mass of the carbon isotope. The simplification of using moles Chemists can simplify the process by using moles, where 1 mole of an element represents its atomic mass in grams. This simplifies the calculations and ensures the perfect ratio of chemicals for a reaction. Conclusion The concept of moles in chemistry simplifies the process of determining the amounts of substances needed for a chemical reaction, based on the atomic masses of the elements involved. Moles provide a convenient way to express the amounts of substances in chemical equations.
Updated 426d ago
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Hydrogen Atom 1s^1
Updated 470d ago
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Organic Chemistry – branch of chemistry which deals with study of carbon containing compounds their properties , composition, structure , reactions and preparations. Organic compounds – are carbon containing compounds with the exception of carbon dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonate Inorganic Chemistry – branch of chemistry which deals with the study of all elements and compounds other than organic compounds Comparison of the properties of most Organic and Inorganic compounds Properties Organic Inorganic Flammable Yes No Melting point Low High Boiling point Low Hogh Solubility in water Insoluble Soluble Solubility in non polar solvent Soluble Insoluble Type of bond Covalent Ionic bond Reaction occurs between Molecule Ions Atoms per molecule Many Few Structure Complex Simple Electrolyte No Electrolyte Organic compounds A. Hydrocarbon -compounds that contains only carbon and hydrogen 1. Saturated - contains single bond ; Example Alkane ( CnH2n+2) 2. Unsaturated – contains double or triple bond. a. Alkene – contains double bond ( CnH2n ) b. Alkyne - Contains triple bond (CnHn-2 ) c. Aromatic Hydrocarbon - hydrocarbon that contains benzene ring B. Hydrocarbon derivative – compounds that contains carbon and hydrogen and other element such O, N, P,S, halogens. 1. Alcohol - ROH organic compound produced by hydration of alkene 2. Ether - ROR - prepared by dehydration of alcohol 3. Aldehyde – RCHO – prepared by oxidation of primary alcohol 4. Ketone – RCOR – prepared by oxidation of secondary alcohol 5. Carboxylic Acid - RCOOH – prepared by oxidation of aldehyde 6. Amine - organic compound derived from ammonia ( NH3) a. Primary Amine –R NH2 b. Secondary Amine – R2NH c. Tertiary Carbon – R3N 7. Amide – RCONH2 – organic compound prepared by the reaction of carboxylic acid ammonia. 8. Ester – RCOOR – Organic compounds prepared by the reaction of carboxylic acid and alcohol Structural formula - two dimensional structural representation that shows how the various atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other a. Expanded structural formula - show all atoms in a molecules and all bonds connecting them. b. Condensed structural formula – uses groupings of atom in which central atoms and the atoms connected to them are written in a group. c. Skeletal structural formula - show the arrangement and bonding of carbon atoms present in an organic molecule but does not show the hydrogen atom attached to the carbon atom - d. Line angle structural formula - structural representation in which a line represent a carbon-carbon bond and a carbon atom is understood to be present at every point where two lines meet and at the end of the line. Classification of Carbon Atoms 1. Primary Carbon - carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly bonded to one carbon one other carbon atom. Ex. CH3- CH3 10 1O 2. Secondary carbon atom – is a carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly attached to two 3. Tertiary carbon - carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly attached to three other carbon atoms. 4. Quarternary carbon atom - is a carbon atom in an organic molecule that is directly attached to four other carbon atoms. Alkyl group – group of atom that would be obtained by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane Substituent – is an atom or group of atoms attached to a chain or ring of carbon atoms. Alkane - Saturated hydrocarbon that contains single bond Rules in naming alkane 1. Choose the longest continuous chain as your parent chain 2. Locate the position of the substituent starting from the carbon nearest to it. 3. If there are two or more the same substituents , use the Greek prefixes such as di, tri , tetra, etc. 4. If there are different substituents, write the name in alphabetical order, 5. Use commas between numbers and hyphen between number and letter. Isomer – compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2- CH3 CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 – C – CH3 CH3 Cycloalkane – saturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms connected to one another in a cycl (ring) arrangement are present. The simplest cycloalkane is cyclopropane.
Updated 530d ago
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Dependant/ independent variables Independent- The variable being manipulated Dependant- The observed result of the independent variable being manipulated 3 Domains Prokaryotes, Eukaryotes, Archae 3 Types of Relationships Commensalism Parasitism Mutualism Scientific Hypothesis an idea that proposes a tentative explanation about a phenomenon or a narrow set of phenomena observed in the natural world. Difference between Archea/ Bacteria Archaea consists of three RNA whereas bacteria consists of single RNA. Quantitative/ Qualitative data Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable Qualitative data is interpretation-based, descriptive, and related to language. Homeostasis Balance of the body Controlled Experiment In a controlled experiment, all extraneous variables are held constant so that they can't influence the results. Difference between Hydrophobic/ Hydrophilic Any substance that repels water Any substance that has an affinity for water Protons/ electrons/ neutron Protons- a subatomic particle with a positive electric charge Electrons- a negatively charged subatomic particle that can be either bound to an atom or free (not bound). Neutron- an uncharged atomic particle that has a mass nearly equal to that of the proton and is present in all known atomic nuclei except the hydrogen nucleus What a cation/ Anion Cations are ions that are positively charged. Anions are ions that are negatively charged. Isomers Chemical compounds that have identical chemical formulae but differ in properties and the arrangement of atoms in the molecule Picture of elements/ what's on valence electrons Valence electrons have negatively charged particles How many valence electrons are in shells 8 electrons What are examples of trace elements? zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), iodine (I), manganese (Mn), and molybdenum (Mo). Different types of Bonds Covalent Bonds- one or more electrons shared between atoms Non-polar covalent: electrons are shared equally between nuclei Polar covalent- electrons shared equally between the nuclei Ionic Bonds- one or more electrons transformed from one to another Hydrogen Bonds- a weak bond between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative oxygen atom Cohesion/ Adhesion Cohesion- the attraction of molecules for other molecules of the same kind Adhesion- the sticking of molecules or surfaces to each other Radioactive Isotopes, Why are they used Radioisotopes are an essential part of medical diagnostic procedures. In combination with imaging devices that register the gamma rays emitted from within, they can be used for imaging to study the dynamic processes taking place in various parts of the body. Why is Water Important Water's role as a solvent helps cells transport and use substances like oxygen or nutrients. Properties of Water Water is polar Water is a solvent Water is less dense as a solid than a liquid What are reactions a process that converts one or more substances to another substance. .Why are trace elements important? function primarily as catalysts in enzyme systems What are Buffers Substances in the cells that help maintain a relatively stable pH What is the pH scale? a measure of how acidic/basic water is Find the molecular mass of something Atomic weight on the periodic table is equal to moles #/1m = x/ desired # moles Functional groups The shape of molecules directly affects their function Types of atoms, bonds A specific arrangement of atoms Difference between Hydraullisis/ Dehydration Dehydration- removes a water molecule from a new bond Hydrolysis- add a water molecule, breaking a bond Differentiate between Polymers/ Monomers A monomer is a molecule with low molecular weight that can combine with others of the same kind to form a chemical compound known as a polymer Different types of Proteins/ enzymes antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins Difference between plants and animals Plants are not mobile and animals are Cell membrane components Phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, lipid bilayer, membrane proteins
Updated 684d ago
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Chapter 3 - Water
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4 main classes of macromolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids whats the difference between polymers and monomers? a monomer is 1 building block, a polymer is many monomers what is the reactant of dehydration synthesis? product? reactant is 2 or more monomers, the product is a polymer what is the reactant of hydrolysis? product? reactant is a polymer, the product are monomers Common name for Carbohydrates? glucose monomers of carbohydrates monosaccharides What type of bonds do monosaccharides form? glycosidic linkage What do we call two monomers joined together by one of these bonds? polysaccharide How are polysaccharides used in the body? either as building blocks or energy reserves What polysaccharide is used by plants? What is it composed of? Glucose, entirely of glucose monomers What polysaccharide is used by animals? What is it composed of? Glycogen, highly branched glucose Differentiate between alpha and beta linkages. alpha has OH below, beta has OH above What type of carbohydrates have alpha/beta linkages? glucose monomers, cellulose, and starch What qualities do starch gain from its alpha linkages? makes a helix shape and lets it connect What qualities do cellulose gain from its beta linkages? Makes a linear shape What is chitin? Where is it found? Structural polysaccharide found in cell wall of fungi and arthropods. What type of linkages does chitin have? beta linkages . Why don't lipids have an affinity for water? non-polar Describe the composition of a fat. they are made up of glycerol and fatty acids What is the composition of a triglyceride? a glycerol bound to 3 fatty acids How is a triglyceride formed? What type of bonds? 3 fatty acids joined to a glycerol by dehydration synthesis saturated fatty acids Saturated had hydrogen bonds at every position and no carbon carbon bonds Unsaturated fatty acids unsaturated has carbon- carbon bonds and have a kink in the skeleton What property of unsaturated acids makes them liquid at room temperature? they are bent Do saturated or unsaturated fatty acids have a lower melting point? saturated What is the main function of fats? What makes them so good at this? they store twice the amount of energy that carbohydrate do Describe the structure and function of a phospholipid. glycerol connected to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate, forms the cell wall What part of the phospholipid is hydrophobic? tails What part of a phospholipid is hydrophilic? head Describe the arrangement of phospholipids in a membrane. Why do phospholipids arrange themselves in such a way? They make a bilayer, tail avoid water inside Describe the structure of a steroid. 4 fused carbon rings What are some examples of steroids? cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone What are some functions of proteins? structure, support, storage, transport, defense, movement What are the monomers of proteins? amino acids What 4 things are attached to the central carbon of the amino acid? hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, amino group, R variable What is the significance of the R group? determine the characteristics of an amino acids How are amino acids joined? dehydration synthesis What type of bond is formed between the amino acids? peptide bonds What are the names of the two ends of the polypeptide chain of amino acids? n and c terminals How do the two ends of the polypeptide chain get their names? n has a free amino group, c has a free carboxyl group How do proteins form from a polypeptide chain? interactions in the polypeptide make the polypeptide chain and different amino acids form What type of bond is formed in a polypeptide chain? peptide bond Define primary structure. order of amino acids Define secondary structure. What holds it together? coiled and folded shaped bond, hydrogen bonds Describe an alpha helix. What holds it together? a coil, every 4th amino acid has a hydrogen bond Describe a beta pleated sheet. What holds it together? a folding shape, hydrogen bonds hold it in the parallel peptide backbones Describe tertiary structure. 3d shape of a protein determined by the r group How to sulfhydryl groups contribute to the tertiary structure of a protein? strong covalent bonds/disulfide bridges How does quaternary structure arise? aggregation of 2 or more polypeptides How is quaternary different from tertiary? has 4 different polypeptides What factors can lead to the denaturation of proteins? physical and chemical condition of its environment How might this affect the function of the protein? it becomes biologically inactive What is the function of chaperonins? they help fold proteins What might happen if chaperonins don't function properly? it can lead to diseases What are the two types of nucleic acids? DNA and RNA What are nucleic acids monomers? nucleotides Describe the path that information taken from DNA to protein. DNA Gives information to RNA, RNA makes proteins Describe the makeup of a nucleotide. a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group What are the four bases of DNA? Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine Distinguish between purines and pyrimidines. Purines have 1 6 ringed side and one 5 ringed side, Pyrimidines have 1 ring with 6 sides Which bases are purines and which are pyrimidines? Purines: Adenine and Guanine Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine sugar pentose for rna? ribose sugar pentose for DNA? deoxyribose does not have oxygen on carbon 2 What type of bonds are formed between nucleotides? Where on the nucleotide are these bonds formed? phosphodiester bonds, the OH 3 end connects to the phosphate 5 end Describe the double helix of DNA. What's on the inside? What's on the outside? sugar phosphate backbone outside, nitrogenous bases inside What holds the double helix of DNA together? hydrogen bonds How does the cell ensure the DNA will copy correctly? each strand acts likea template What distinguishes RNA from DNA? uracil and single stranded
Updated 1050d ago
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4 main classes of macromolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids whats the difference between polymers and monomers? a monomer is 1 building block, a polymer is many monomers what is the reactant of dehydration synthesis? product? reactant is 2 or more monomers, the product is a polymer what is the reactant of hydrolysis? product? reactant is a polymer, the product are monomers Common name for Carbohydrates? glucose monomers of carbohydrates monosaccharides What type of bonds do monosaccharides form? glycosidic linkage What do we call two monomers joined together by one of these bonds? polysaccharide How are polysaccharides used in the body? either as building blocks or energy reserves What polysaccharide is used by plants? What is it composed of? Glucose, entirely of glucose monomers What polysaccharide is used by animals? What is it composed of? Glycogen, highly branched glucose Differentiate between alpha and beta linkages. alpha has OH below, beta has OH above What type of carbohydrates have alpha/beta linkages? glucose monomers, cellulose, and starch What qualities do starch gain from its alpha linkages? makes a helix shape and lets it connect What qualities do cellulose gain from its beta linkages? Makes a linear shape What is chitin? Where is it found? Structural polysaccharide found in cell wall of fungi and arthropods. What type of linkages does chitin have? beta linkages . Why don't lipids have an affinity for water? non-polar Describe the composition of a fat. they are made up of glycerol and fatty acids What is the composition of a triglyceride? a glycerol bound to 3 fatty acids How is a triglyceride formed? What type of bonds? 3 fatty acids joined to a glycerol by dehydration synthesis saturated fatty acids Saturated had hydrogen bonds at every position and no carbon carbon bonds Unsaturated fatty acids unsaturated has carbon- carbon bonds and have a kink in the skeleton What property of unsaturated acids makes them liquid at room temperature? they are bent Do saturated or unsaturated fatty acids have a lower melting point? saturated What is the main function of fats? What makes them so good at this? they store twice the amount of energy that carbohydrate do Describe the structure and function of a phospholipid. glycerol connected to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate, forms the cell wall What part of the phospholipid is hydrophobic? tails What part of a phospholipid is hydrophilic? head Describe the arrangement of phospholipids in a membrane. Why do phospholipids arrange themselves in such a way? They make a bilayer, tail avoid water inside Describe the structure of a steroid. 4 fused carbon rings What are some examples of steroids? cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone What are some functions of proteins? structure, support, storage, transport, defense, movement What are the monomers of proteins? amino acids What 4 things are attached to the central carbon of the amino acid? hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, amino group, R variable What is the significance of the R group? determine the characteristics of an amino acids How are amino acids joined? dehydration synthesis What type of bond is formed between the amino acids? peptide bonds What are the names of the two ends of the polypeptide chain of amino acids? n and c terminals How do the two ends of the polypeptide chain get their names? n has a free amino group, c has a free carboxyl group How do proteins form from a polypeptide chain? interactions in the polypeptide make the polypeptide chain and different amino acids form What type of bond is formed in a polypeptide chain? peptide bond Define primary structure. order of amino acids Define secondary structure. What holds it together? coiled and folded shaped bond, hydrogen bonds Describe an alpha helix. What holds it together? a coil, every 4th amino acid has a hydrogen bond Describe a beta pleated sheet. What holds it together? a folding shape, hydrogen bonds hold it in the parallel peptide backbones Describe tertiary structure. 3d shape of a protein determined by the r group How to sulfhydryl groups contribute to the tertiary structure of a protein? strong covalent bonds/disulfide bridges How does quaternary structure arise? aggregation of 2 or more polypeptides How is quaternary different from tertiary? has 4 different polypeptides What factors can lead to the denaturation of proteins? physical and chemical condition of its environment How might this affect the function of the protein? it becomes biologically inactive What is the function of chaperonins? they help fold proteins What might happen if chaperonins don't function properly? it can lead to diseases What are the two types of nucleic acids? DNA and RNA What are nucleic acids monomers? nucleotides Describe the path that information taken from DNA to protein. DNA Gives information to RNA, RNA makes proteins Describe the makeup of a nucleotide. a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group What are the four bases of DNA? Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine Distinguish between purines and pyrimidines. Purines have 1 6 ringed side and one 5 ringed side, Pyrimidines have 1 ring with 6 sides Which bases are purines and which are pyrimidines? Purines: Adenine and Guanine Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine sugar pentose for rna? ribose sugar pentose for DNA? deoxyribose does not have oxygen on carbon 2 What type of bonds are formed between nucleotides? Where on the nucleotide are these bonds formed? phosphodiester bonds, the OH 3 end connects to the phosphate 5 end Describe the double helix of DNA. What's on the inside? What's on the outside? sugar phosphate backbone outside, nitrogenous bases inside What holds the double helix of DNA together? hydrogen bonds How does the cell ensure the DNA will copy correctly? each strand acts likea template What distinguishes RNA from DNA? uracil and single stranded
Updated 1050d ago
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4 main classes of macromolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids whats the difference between polymers and monomers? a monomer is 1 building block, a polymer is many monomers what is the reactant of dehydration synthesis? product? reactant is 2 or more monomers, the product is a polymer what is the reactant of hydrolysis? product? reactant is a polymer, the product are monomers Common name for Carbohydrates? glucose monomers of carbohydrates monosaccharides What type of bonds do monosaccharides form? glycosidic linkage What do we call two monomers joined together by one of these bonds? polysaccharide How are polysaccharides used in the body? either as building blocks or energy reserves What polysaccharide is used by plants? What is it composed of? Glucose, entirely of glucose monomers What polysaccharide is used by animals? What is it composed of? Glycogen, highly branched glucose Differentiate between alpha and beta linkages. alpha has OH below, beta has OH above What type of carbohydrates have alpha/beta linkages? glucose monomers, cellulose, and starch What qualities do starch gain from its alpha linkages? makes a helix shape and lets it connect What qualities do cellulose gain from its beta linkages? Makes a linear shape What is chitin? Where is it found? Structural polysaccharide found in cell wall of fungi and arthropods. What type of linkages does chitin have? beta linkages . Why don't lipids have an affinity for water? non-polar Describe the composition of a fat. they are made up of glycerol and fatty acids What is the composition of a triglyceride? a glycerol bound to 3 fatty acids How is a triglyceride formed? What type of bonds? 3 fatty acids joined to a glycerol by dehydration synthesis saturated fatty acids Saturated had hydrogen bonds at every position and no carbon carbon bonds Unsaturated fatty acids unsaturated has carbon- carbon bonds and have a kink in the skeleton What property of unsaturated acids makes them liquid at room temperature? they are bent Do saturated or unsaturated fatty acids have a lower melting point? saturated What is the main function of fats? What makes them so good at this? they store twice the amount of energy that carbohydrate do Describe the structure and function of a phospholipid. glycerol connected to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate, forms the cell wall What part of the phospholipid is hydrophobic? tails What part of a phospholipid is hydrophilic? head Describe the arrangement of phospholipids in a membrane. Why do phospholipids arrange themselves in such a way? They make a bilayer, tail avoid water inside Describe the structure of a steroid. 4 fused carbon rings What are some examples of steroids? cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone What are some functions of proteins? structure, support, storage, transport, defense, movement What are the monomers of proteins? amino acids What 4 things are attached to the central carbon of the amino acid? hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, amino group, R variable What is the significance of the R group? determine the characteristics of an amino acids How are amino acids joined? dehydration synthesis What type of bond is formed between the amino acids? peptide bonds What are the names of the two ends of the polypeptide chain of amino acids? n and c terminals How do the two ends of the polypeptide chain get their names? n has a free amino group, c has a free carboxyl group How do proteins form from a polypeptide chain? interactions in the polypeptide make the polypeptide chain and different amino acids form What type of bond is formed in a polypeptide chain? peptide bond Define primary structure. order of amino acids Define secondary structure. What holds it together? coiled and folded shaped bond, hydrogen bonds Describe an alpha helix. What holds it together? a coil, every 4th amino acid has a hydrogen bond Describe a beta pleated sheet. What holds it together? a folding shape, hydrogen bonds hold it in the parallel peptide backbones Describe tertiary structure. 3d shape of a protein determined by the r group How to sulfhydryl groups contribute to the tertiary structure of a protein? strong covalent bonds/disulfide bridges How does quaternary structure arise? aggregation of 2 or more polypeptides How is quaternary different from tertiary? has 4 different polypeptides What factors can lead to the denaturation of proteins? physical and chemical condition of its environment How might this affect the function of the protein? it becomes biologically inactive What is the function of chaperonins? they help fold proteins What might happen if chaperonins don't function properly? it can lead to diseases What are the two types of nucleic acids? DNA and RNA What are nucleic acids monomers? nucleotides Describe the path that information taken from DNA to protein. DNA Gives information to RNA, RNA makes proteins Describe the makeup of a nucleotide. a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group What are the four bases of DNA? Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine Distinguish between purines and pyrimidines. Purines have 1 6 ringed side and one 5 ringed side, Pyrimidines have 1 ring with 6 sides Which bases are purines and which are pyrimidines? Purines: Adenine and Guanine Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine sugar pentose for rna? ribose sugar pentose for DNA? deoxyribose does not have oxygen on carbon 2 What type of bonds are formed between nucleotides? Where on the nucleotide are these bonds formed? phosphodiester bonds, the OH 3 end connects to the phosphate 5 end Describe the double helix of DNA. What's on the inside? What's on the outside? sugar phosphate backbone outside, nitrogenous bases inside What holds the double helix of DNA together? hydrogen bonds How does the cell ensure the DNA will copy correctly? each strand acts likea template What distinguishes RNA from DNA? uracil and single stranded
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