les prépositions fixes

QUIZ #1 — POWER NOTES 1. Normative vs. Positive Political Science Normative = what SHOULD be. * Based on values, beliefs, and opinions. * Asks: “What should the government do?” Positive = what IS. * Based on evidence and observable facts. * Asks: “What actually happens?” Easy memory trick: 👉 Normative = “should” 👉 Positive = “is” Example: * “The government should provide free college.” → Normative * “States that spend more on education have higher graduation rates.” → Positive ⸻ 2. Approaches in Political Science An approach is basically a particular way of looking at politics. Know these: Rational Choice * Assumes people make decisions based on their interests and preferences. * People weigh costs and benefits. Behavioralism * Focuses on observable political behavior. * Looks at things like voting, public opinion, participation, etc. * Uses evidence/data to study behavior. Institutionalism * Focuses on institutions and rules. * Institutions can shape how people behave and what political outcomes happen. Constructivism * Focuses on how ideas, beliefs, identities, and social norms shape politics. Feminist approach * Examines how gender and power relationships affect politics. Normative approach * Focuses on questions about values, justice, rights, and what government ought to do. ⸻ 3. Methodologies Methodology = how political scientists study something. Two big categories: Quantitative * Uses numbers and statistics. * Example: Surveying 5,000 voters and analyzing their responses. Qualitative * Uses words, observations, interviews, documents, or detailed cases. * Example: Interviewing voters to understand why they support a candidate. If the professor says: “Describe one methodology.” You can say: Quantitative research uses numerical data and statistical analysis to identify patterns or relationships. That’s a solid answer. 👏 ⸻ 4. Theory A theory is an explanation of how or why something happens. It helps political scientists: * organize information * explain political behavior * make predictions that can be tested Example: A theory might explain why some people are more likely to vote than others. ⚠️ A theory in science does NOT mean “just a guess.” ⸻ 5. Transaction Costs Transaction costs = the time, effort, and resources required to reach an agreement or make a decision. Think: “How hard/expensive is it to get everyone to agree?” Example: If 500 people have to agree on one decision, getting everyone together, discussing the issue, and reaching an agreement creates transaction costs. Conformity Costs Conformity costs = the costs people face when they have to accept a decision they don’t personally prefer. Example: A group votes 8–2 to raise a fee. The two people who voted against it still have to pay it. 👉 That’s a conformity cost. ⸻ 6. Formal vs. Informal Institutions Formal institutions = Official rules and organizations. Examples: * Constitution * Congress * Courts * Laws * Government agencies Informal institutions = Unwritten rules, norms, traditions, and expectations. Examples: * Political traditions * Social expectations * Unwritten customs * Norms about how politicians are expected to behave Easy memory trick: 👉 Formal = written/official 👉 Informal = unwritten/social ⸻ 7. Overcoming Collective Action Problems Collective action problem = when individuals would benefit from working together, but each person has a reason NOT to participate. Example: Everyone wants a cleaner campus. But each student thinks: “Why should I pick up trash? Other people can do it.” That’s the problem. Ways institutions can help: * Incentives → reward people for participating * Penalties → punish people who don’t participate * Rules → require participation * Leadership/organization → coordinate people * Selective incentives → give specific benefits to people who participate ⭐ Important: Free rider problem = someone benefits from a group effort without helping pay or participate. ⸻ 8. Institutional Design Institutional design = creating rules and procedures that determine how political decisions are made. Basically: Who gets to do what, and what rules do they have to follow? Two important examples: Veto Power Veto power = the ability to stop or block a decision. Example: The president can veto legislation passed by Congress. Agenda Control Agenda control = the ability to decide which issues or proposals get considered. Basically: “What are we even going to talk about?” Someone who controls the agenda can influence which proposals get attention. ⸻ 9. Checks and Balances Checks and balances = each branch of government has powers that can limit the other branches. The three branches: 🏛️ Legislative — Congress * Makes laws ⚖️ Judicial — Courts * Interprets laws 🏠 Executive — President * Enforces laws Examples: Congress → President * Congress passes bills * Congress can override a presidential veto with enough votes President → Congress * President can veto bills Courts → Congress/President * Courts can declare government actions unconstitutional President → Courts * President nominates federal judges, subject to Senate confirmation Congress → Courts * Senate confirms federal judges * Congress controls federal funding and can change the structure/jurisdiction of lower federal courts within constitutional limits Main idea: No single branch is supposed to have unlimited power. ⸻ 🇺🇸 10. Articles of Confederation THIS ONE IS IMPORTANT. The Articles of Confederation were the first governing framework of the United States, used before the Constitution. The biggest problem: The national government was TOO WEAK. Under the Articles: * Congress had limited power * There was no separate executive branch * There was no national judicial branch * Congress couldn’t directly tax citizens * The national government had difficulty enforcing decisions * States retained a lot of power Why was this a problem? The national government had trouble: * raising money * paying debts * regulating commerce * responding effectively to national problems This helped lead to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and eventually the Constitution. ⭐ Remember this: Articles of Confederation = weak national government Constitution = stronger national government with checks and balances ⸻ 🧠 THE STUFF I WOULD MEMORIZE FIRST If you’re short on time, memorize these: Normative = what SHOULD be. Positive = what IS. Rational choice = people make choices based on interests/costs and benefits. Behavioralism = studies observable political behavior. Quantitative = numbers/statistics. Qualitative = words, interviews, observations, cases. Theory = explanation of how/why something happens. Transaction costs = costs of reaching an agreement. Conformity costs = costs of accepting an outcome you don’t prefer. Formal institutions = official/written rules. Informal institutions = unwritten rules/norms. Collective action problem = difficulty getting people to work together. Free rider = gets the benefit without contributing. Veto power = ability to block a decision. Agenda control = ability to decide what gets considered. Checks and balances = branches limit each other’s power. Articles of Confederation = weak national government. 🔥 One-sentence version of the whole quiz: Political scientists study politics using different approaches and methods, while political institutions create rules that help people overcome collective-action problems, control costs, distribute power, and prevent any one part of government from becoming too powerful.

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