Module 4: Prevention and Management of Catastrophe and Unusual Occurrences

TOTAL CNA QUIZZESSSSS, Module 1 Quiz - Introduction to Nurse Assistant, Module 2 Quiz - Patient / Residents Rights, Module 3 Quiz - Communications / Interpersonal Skills, Module 4 Quiz - Prevention and Management of Catastrophe and Unusual Occurrenc…

bio Genetics is the study of heredity and how traits are passed from parents to offspring. Gregor Mendel is known as the “Father of Genetics.” Why did Mendel use pea plants? * Easy to grow * Short generation time * Many visible traits * Can self-pollinate or cross-pollinate * Produce many offspring Examples of traits studied: * Flower colour * Seed shape * Plant height ⸻ VOCABULARY Gene * A segment of DNA that controls a trait. Allele * Different forms of the same gene. Example: P = purple flowers p = white flowers Dominant Allele * Expressed whenever it is present. * Represented by a capital letter. Example: P = purple Recessive Allele * Only expressed when two copies are present. * Represented by a lowercase letter. Example: p = white Genotype * Genetic makeup of an organism. Examples: PP Pp pp Phenotype * Physical appearance of an organism. Examples: Purple flower White flower Homozygous * Two identical alleles. Examples: PP pp Heterozygous * Two different alleles. Example: Pp Pure Breeding * Homozygous for a trait. Gamete * Sex cell (sperm or egg). ⸻ MENDEL’S LAWS Law of Dominance * A dominant allele masks a recessive allele. Example: Pp = Purple flower Law of Segregation * Alleles separate during gamete formation. * Each gamete receives only one allele. Example: Parent = Pp Gametes: P p Law of Independent Assortment * Different genes assort independently during meiosis. ⸻ MONOHYBRID CROSSES A monohybrid cross studies one trait. Example: P = Purple p = White Cross: Pp × Pp Punnett Square INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE Neither allele completely dominates. Example: Snapdragons RR = Red WW = White RW = Pink Cross: RW × RW Genotype Ratio: 1 RR : 2 RW : 1 WW Phenotype Ratio: 1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White CODOMINANCE Both alleles are expressed equally. Example: AB Blood Type Genotype: IAIB Phenotype: AB MULTIPLE ALLELES More than two alleles exist in a population. Example: ABO Blood Group Alleles: IA IB i BLOOD TYPES Type A Genotypes: IAIA or IAi Type B Genotypes: IBIB or IBi Type AB Genotype: IAIB Type O Genotype: ii Can Type A and Type B Parents Have a Type O Child? Yes. If: Father = IAi Mother = IBi Possible Blood Types: AB A B O CELL CYCLE Purpose: * Growth * Repair * Replacement of cells Stages: G1 S G2 Mitosis Cytokinesis INTERPHASE G1 Phase Cell grows and carries out normal functions. S Phase DNA replication occurs. G2 Phase Cell prepares for division. MITOSIS Purpose: Growth and repair. Produces: 2 genetically identical diploid cells. PROPHASE Events: * Chromosomes condense * Nuclear membrane disappears * Nucleolus disappears * Spindle fibres form METAPHASE Events: * Chromosomes line up at the equator ANAPHASE Events: * Sister chromatids separate TELOPHASE Events: * Nuclear membranes reform * Chromosomes uncoil CYTOKINESIS Division of the cytoplasm. Animal Cells: Cleavage furrow forms. Plant Cells: Cell plate forms. CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE Chromosome consists of: * Two sister chromatids * One centromere DIPLOID VS HAPLOID Diploid (2n) * Two sets of chromosomes * Human body cells * 46 chromosomes Haploid (n) * One set of chromosomes * Human gametes * 23 chromosomes HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES Chromosome pairs that: * Carry the same genes * One comes from the mother * One comes from the father Humans have 23 homologous pairs. MEIOSIS Purpose: Produce gametes. Produces: 4 genetically unique haploid cells. MEIOSIS I Separates homologous chromosomes. CROSSING OVER Occurs during Prophase I. Definition: Exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes. Importance: Creates genetic variation. RANDOM ASSORTMENT Occurs during Metaphase I. Definition: Homologous pairs line up randomly. Importance: Creates unique chromosome combinations. MEIOSIS II Separates sister chromatids. MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS Mitosis * 2 cells produced * Diploid * Genetically identical * Growth and repair Meiosis * 4 cells produced * Haploid * Genetically different * Produces gametes NONDISJUNCTION Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis. Can result in extra or missing chromosomes. DOWN SYNDROME Cause: Extra chromosome 21. Chromosome Number: 47 Usually caused by nondisjunction during meiosis. DNA DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid Shape: Double Helix Function: Stores genetic information. NUCLEOTIDE Three Components: * Phosphate Group * Deoxyribose Sugar * Nitrogenous Base NITROGENOUS BASES Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIRING A pairs with T C pairs with G DNA REPLICATION Purpose: Make identical copies of DNA. Location: Nucleus Result: Two identical DNA molecules. TRANSCRIPTION Purpose: Create mRNA from DNA. Location: Nucleus DNA → mRNA Remember: RNA uses Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T). TRANSLATION Purpose: Make proteins. Location: Ribosome mRNA is read and amino acids are joined together to form a protein. MUTATIONS A mutation is a change in DNA sequence. Types: * Deletion * Duplication * Inversion * Translocation DELETION DNA segment removed. DUPLICATION DNA segment repeated. INVERSION DNA segment reversed. TRANSLOCATION DNA segment moves to another chromosome. SEX-LINKED TRAITS Traits located on sex chromosomes. Most are located on the X chromosome. RED-GREEN COLOUR BLINDNESS Inheritance: X-linked recessive. XC = Normal Vision Xc = Colour Blind Male: XcY Colour blind boys inherit the allele from their mother because fathers pass a Y chromosome to their sons. TAY-SACHS DISEASE Cause: Missing enzyme that breaks down lipids in nerve cells. Inheritance: Autosomal recessive. Treatment: No cure currently available. SICKLE CELL ANEMIA Cause: Mutation in hemoglobin gene. Effects: * Sickle-shaped red blood cells * Reduced oxygen transport * Blocked blood vessels Inheritance: Autosomal recessive. HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE Cause: Dominant mutation. Effects: * Nervous system degeneration * Loss of motor control * Cognitive decline Inheritance: Autosomal dominant. KARYOTYPE A photograph of chromosomes arranged in pairs. Used to: * Determine sex * Detect chromosome abnormalities * Diagnose genetic disorders PEDIGREE A family tree used to track inheritance patterns. Symbols: Square = Male Circle = Female Shaded = Has trait CLONING Producing genetically identical organisms. Uses: * Research * Agriculture * Medicine * Conservation GENETIC COUNSELLING Provides information about: * Inherited disorders * Family risk * Testing options AMNIOCENTESIS Prenatal test in which amniotic fluid is sampled and fetal cells are analyzed. Can detect: * Genetic disorders * Chromosomal disorders GMOs Genetically Modified Organisms. Definition: Organisms whose DNA has been altered through biotechnology. Advantages: * Increased crop yield * Disease resistance * Pest resistance Disadvantages: * Ethical concerns * Environmental concerns DNA REPLICATION → TRANSCRIPTION → TRANSLATION DNA (Nucleus) ↓ Replication DNA Copy DNA ↓ Transcription mRNA mRNA ↓ Translation Protein Final Product: Protein RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Function: * Brings oxygen into the body * Removes carbon dioxide * Works with the circulatory system to supply cells with oxygen Why do organisms require oxygen and produce carbon dioxide? Oxygen is required for cellular respiration. Cellular Respiration: Glucose + Oxygen → Energy (ATP) + Carbon Dioxide + Water Cells use oxygen to release energy from food. Carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product and must be removed. ⸻ PATHWAY OF AIR Nasal Cavity ↓ Pharynx ↓ Larynx ↓ Trachea ↓ Bronchi ↓ Bronchioles ↓ Alveoli ⸻ NASAL CAVITY Functions: * Warms air * Moistens air * Filters air Nasal Hairs: * Trap large particles Mucus: * Traps dust and microorganisms Blood Capillaries: * Warm incoming air ⸻ PHARYNX Common passageway for: * Air * Food Also called the throat. ⸻ UVULA Functions: * Prevents food from entering nasal cavity * Helps with speech ⸻ EPIGLOTTIS Functions: * Covers trachea during swallowing * Prevents choking ⸻ LARYNX Also called the voice box. Contains vocal cords. ⸻ TRACHEA Also called the windpipe. Contains cartilage rings that prevent collapse. Lined with: * Cilia * Mucus ⸻ CILIA Tiny hair-like structures. Function: * Sweep mucus upward toward throat ⸻ BRONCHI Two branches of the trachea leading to lungs. Right Bronchus → Right Lung Left Bronchus → Left Lung ⸻ BRONCHIOLES Smaller branches inside lungs. Lead to alveoli. ⸻ ALVEOLI Tiny air sacs. Site of gas exchange. Adaptations: * Thin walls * Moist surface * Large surface area * Rich blood supply Gas Exchange: Oxygen moves: Alveoli → Blood Carbon Dioxide moves: Blood → Alveoli By diffusion. ⸻ BREATHING MECHANICS Two main muscles: 1. Diaphragm 2. Intercostal Muscles ⸻ INHALATION (INSPIRATION) Diaphragm: * Contracts * Moves downward Intercostal Muscles: * Contract * Lift ribs upward Result: * Chest cavity volume increases * Pressure decreases * Air enters lungs ⸻ EXHALATION (EXPIRATION) Diaphragm: * Relaxes * Moves upward Intercostal Muscles: * Relax Result: * Chest cavity volume decreases * Pressure increases * Air leaves lungs ⸻ MEDULLA OBLONGATA Located in the brainstem. Function: * Controls breathing rate Responds to: * Carbon dioxide levels More CO₂: * Faster breathing Less CO₂: * Slower breathing ⸻ LUNG VOLUMES Tidal Volume * Normal amount of air breathed in and out Inspiratory Reserve Volume * Extra air inhaled after normal breath Expiratory Reserve Volume * Extra air exhaled after normal breath Residual Volume * Air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation Vital Capacity * Maximum amount of air exhaled after deepest breath Total Lung Capacity * Total amount of air lungs can hold ⸻ CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Functions: * Transport oxygen * Transport nutrients * Remove wastes * Maintain homeostasis * Transport hormones Humans have a CLOSED circulatory system. Blood remains inside vessels. ⸻ BLOOD VESSELS ARTERIES Function: * Carry blood away from heart Characteristics: * Thick walls * High pressure * Small lumen * No valves Usually oxygen-rich Exception: Pulmonary artery ⸻ VEINS Function: * Carry blood toward heart Characteristics: * Thin walls * Low pressure * Large lumen * Valves present Usually oxygen-poor Exception: Pulmonary vein ⸻ CAPILLARIES Smallest blood vessels. Functions: * Gas exchange * Nutrient exchange * Waste exchange Walls are one cell thick. ⸻ HEART STRUCTURE Blood Flow: Body ↓ Vena Cava ↓ Right Atrium ↓ Right Ventricle ↓ Pulmonary Artery ↓ Lungs ↓ Pulmonary Vein ↓ Left Atrium ↓ Left Ventricle ↓ Aorta ↓ Body ⸻ HEART CHAMBERS Right Atrium * Receives deoxygenated blood Right Ventricle * Pumps blood to lungs Left Atrium * Receives oxygenated blood Left Ventricle * Pumps blood to body ⸻ SEPTUM Wall separating left and right sides of heart. Prevents mixing of blood. ⸻ HEART VALVES Function: * Prevent backflow of blood Types: Atrioventricular (AV) Valves Pulmonary Semilunar Valve Aortic Semilunar Valve ⸻ SA NODE Sinoatrial Node Known as: * Natural pacemaker Initiates heartbeat. ⸻ AV NODE Atrioventricular Node Receives signal from SA node. Delays impulse slightly. Allows ventricles to fill before contraction. ⸻ BLOOD Components: 1. Plasma 2. Red Blood Cells 3. White Blood Cells 4. Platelets ⸻ PLASMA Liquid component of blood. Functions: * Transport nutrients * Transport hormones * Transport wastes ⸻ RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES) Function: * Carry oxygen Contain: * Hemoglobin ⸻ HEMOGLOBIN Protein in red blood cells. Function: * Binds oxygen Allows oxygen transport. ⸻ WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTES) Function: * Fight infection * Defend body Part of immune system. ⸻ PLATELETS Function: * Blood clotting Prevent blood loss. ⸻ BLOOD PRESSURE Force of blood against artery walls. Measured using: Sphygmomanometer Example: 120/80 120 = Systolic Pressure 80 = Diastolic Pressure ⸻ SYSTOLIC PRESSURE Pressure when heart contracts. ⸻ DIASTOLIC PRESSURE Pressure when heart relaxes. ⸻ HYPERTENSION High blood pressure. Can increase risk of: * Stroke * Heart attack * Kidney disease ⸻ STROKE VOLUME Amount of blood pumped per heartbeat. ⸻ CARDIAC OUTPUT Amount of blood pumped per minute. Formula: Cardiac Output = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume ⸻ ECG Electrocardiogram Measures electrical activity of heart. Used to detect: * Irregular heartbeat * Heart damage ⸻ PULMONARY CIRCULATION Heart → Lungs → Heart Purpose: * Oxygenate blood ⸻ SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION Heart → Body → Heart Purpose: * Deliver oxygen to tissues ⸻ HOMEOSTASIS DURING EXERCISE Body responds by: * Increasing heart rate * Increasing breathing rate * Increasing cardiac output * Redirecting blood to muscles * Sweating to cool body Purpose: Maintain stable internal conditions. ⸻ DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Functions: * Break down food * Absorb nutrients * Eliminate waste ⸻ DIGESTIVE TRACT Mouth ↓ Pharynx ↓ Esophagus ↓ Stomach ↓ Small Intestine ↓ Large Intestine ↓ Rectum ↓ Anus ⸻ MECHANICAL DIGESTION Physical breakdown of food. Examples: * Chewing * Churning ⸻ CHEMICAL DIGESTION Chemical breakdown of food using enzymes. Examples: * Amylase * Pepsin ⸻ SALIVA Functions: 1. Moistens food 2. Contains amylase Amylase begins carbohydrate digestion. ⸻ TONGUE Functions: 1. Forms bolus 2. Pushes food for swallowing ⸻ ESOPHAGUS Moves food to stomach. Uses: Peristalsis ⸻ PERISTALSIS Wave-like muscular contractions. Move food through digestive tract. ⸻ STOMACH Functions: * Stores food * Mixes food * Begins protein digestion Produces: * HCl * Pepsin * Mucus ⸻ HCl Hydrochloric Acid Functions: * Kills bacteria * Activates pepsin ⸻ PEPSIN Function: * Digests proteins ⸻ MUCUS Function: * Protects stomach lining ⸻ CHYME Semi-liquid food mixture leaving stomach. ⸻ HEARTBURN Cause: Stomach acid enters esophagus. Usually caused by weakened cardiac sphincter. ⸻ SMALL INTESTINE Main site of: * Digestion * Absorption Adaptations: * Long length * Folds * Villi * Microvilli Large surface area increases absorption. ⸻ DUODENUM First section. Functions: * Receives bile * Receives pancreatic enzymes * Most chemical digestion ⸻ JEJUNUM Main nutrient absorption. ⸻ ILEUM Final nutrient absorption. ⸻ VILLI Finger-like projections. Function: Increase surface area. ⸻ LIVER Functions: * Produces bile * Processes nutrients * Detoxifies blood ⸻ GALL BLADDER Functions: * Stores bile * Releases bile into small intestine ⸻ PANCREAS Functions: * Produces digestive enzymes * Produces bicarbonate ⸻ BILE Function: Emulsifies fats. Breaks large fat droplets into smaller droplets. Makes fat digestion easier. ⸻ DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES Mouth: * Amylase begins digestion Small Intestine: * Pancreatic amylase continues digestion End Product: Glucose ⸻ DIGESTION OF PROTEINS Stomach: * Pepsin begins digestion Small Intestine: * Trypsin continues digestion End Product: Amino Acids ⸻ DIGESTION OF LIPIDS Small Intestine: * Bile emulsifies fats * Lipase digests fats End Product: Fatty Acids + Glycerol ⸻ EVOLUTION Evolution: Change in populations over time. Individuals do NOT evolve. Populations evolve. ⸻ DARWIN Proposed: Natural Selection Book: On the Origin of Species ⸻ WALLACE Independently developed theory of natural selection. ⸻ LAMARCK Proposed: Inheritance of acquired characteristics Example: Giraffes stretch necks and pass longer necks to offspring. This theory is incorrect. ⸻ NATURAL SELECTION Requirements: 1. Variation 2. Overproduction 3. Competition 4. Differential Survival 5. Reproduction Result: Adaptation ⸻ ADAPTATION Inherited characteristic that increases survival and reproduction. ⸻ SELECTIVE ADVANTAGE A characteristic that improves survival or reproduction. Example: Antibiotic resistance ⸻ SELECTIVE PRESSURE Environmental factor that influences survival. Examples: * Predators * Disease * Climate * Competition ⸻ VARIATION Differences among individuals in a population. Sources: * Mutation * Crossing Over * Random Assortment ⸻ MUTATION Ultimate source of new alleles. Creates genetic variation. ⸻ FOSSIL Preserved remains or traces of organisms. ⸻ FOSSIL RECORD Collection of fossils showing evolutionary history. Provides evidence for evolution. ⸻ RADIOACTIVE DATING Uses radioactive isotopes to determine fossil age. ⸻ UNIFORMITARIANISM Proposed by Lyell. Earth changes gradually over long periods of time. ⸻ CATASTROPHISM Proposed by Cuvier. Earth shaped by sudden catastrophic events. ⸻ BIOGEOGRAPHY Study of species distribution around Earth. Provides evidence for evolution. ⸻ EMBRYOLOGY Study of embryos. Similar embryos suggest common ancestry. ⸻ HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES Same evolutionary origin. Different functions. Example: Human arm Whale flipper Bat wing Evidence of common ancestry. ⸻ ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES Different origins. Same function. Example: Bird wing Insect wing Not evidence of close ancestry. ⸻ VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES Structures with little or no function. Examples: * Human appendix * Whale pelvis Evidence of evolution. ⸻ MIMICRY One species resembles another. Example: Syrphid fly resembles wasp. Provides protection. ⸻ ARTIFICIAL SELECTION Humans select traits. Examples: * Dog breeding * Crop breeding ⸻ DIRECTIONAL SELECTION One extreme phenotype favored. Graph shifts in one direction. ⸻ STABILIZING SELECTION Average phenotype favored. Extremes selected against. ⸻ DISRUPTIVE SELECTION Both extremes favored. Middle selected against. ⸻ GENETIC DRIFT Random change in allele frequencies. Most significant in small populations. ⸻ FOUNDER EFFECT Small group starts new population. Different allele frequencies from original population. ⸻ BOTTLENECK EFFECT Population drastically reduced. Loss of genetic variation. ⸻ GENE FLOW Movement of alleles between populations. Occurs through migration. ⸻ NON-RANDOM MATING Individuals choose specific mates. Can reduce variation. ⸻ SPECIES A group of organisms that can interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring. ⸻ SPECIATION Formation of new species. ⸻ ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION Requires: Geographic isolation Example: Mountain separates populations. ⸻ SYMPATRIC SPECIATION Occurs without geographic isolation. ⸻ PRE-ZYGOTIC ISOLATION Prevents fertilization. Examples: * Different mating seasons * Different mating songs * Different habitats ⸻ POST-ZYGOTIC ISOLATION Occurs after fertilization. Example: Sterile hybrids Example: Mule DIVERSITY Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes PROKARYOTES * No nucleus * No membrane-bound organelles * Circular DNA * Smaller * Examples: Eubacteria, Archaebacteria EUKARYOTES * Nucleus present * Membrane-bound organelles * Linear chromosomes * Larger * Examples: Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals Three Differences: 1. Nucleus vs no nucleus 2. Organelles vs no organelles 3. Larger vs smaller ⸻ Taxonomy Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Mnemonic: King Philip Came Over For Good Soup ⸻ Binomial Nomenclature Genus + Species Example: Homo sapiens Rules: * Genus capitalized * Species lowercase * Italicized Purpose: * Universal naming system * Avoids confusion * Shows relationships ⸻ Dichotomous Key Used to identify organisms using paired choices. Example: 1a Has wings → Step 2 1b No wings → Step 3 ⸻ Six Kingdoms 1. Archaebacteria 2. Eubacteria 3. Protista 4. Fungi 5. Plantae 6. Animalia ⸻ VIRUSES Virus Structure: * DNA or RNA * Capsid * Attachment proteins * Sometimes envelope Why Viruses Are Not Living: * Not made of cells * Cannot reproduce independently * No metabolism * Need host cell ⸻ DNA Virus vs RNA Virus DNA Virus: * Contains DNA * More stable RNA Virus: * Contains RNA * Mutates faster ⸻ Lytic Cycle Attachment ↓ Penetration ↓ Replication ↓ Assembly ↓ Lysis Host cell bursts. ⸻ Lysogenic Cycle Attachment ↓ Penetration ↓ Integration into host DNA ↓ Host reproduces ↓ Virus DNA copied Cell survives initially. ⸻ ARCHAEBACTERIA Characteristics: * Prokaryotic * Unicellular * Extreme environments Three Groups: Methanogens * Produce methane Halophiles * Salt-loving Thermoacidophiles * Hot acidic environments ⸻ EUBACTERIA Characteristics: * Prokaryotic * Peptidoglycan cell wall * Binary fission Examples: * E. coli * Streptococcus ⸻ Binary Fission DNA Replication ↓ Cell Growth ↓ Cell Division ↓ Two Identical Cells ⸻ Conjugation DNA transfer through pilus. Importance: * Genetic variation * Antibiotic resistance ⸻ Antibiotic Resistance Mutation ↓ Antibiotic kills susceptible bacteria ↓ Resistant bacteria survive ↓ Resistant bacteria reproduce Natural Selection ⸻ PROTISTS Characteristics: * Eukaryotic * Mostly unicellular * Aquatic Three Groups: Animal-like * Amoeba * Paramecium Plant-like * Algae * Euglena Fungus-like * Slime molds ⸻ Amoeba * Uses pseudopods * Phagocytosis ⸻ Algae * Photosynthetic * Oxygen producer ⸻ Euglena * Chloroplasts * Flagellum * Photosynthesis * Can also feed heterotrophically ⸻ Malaria Cause: Plasmodium Kingdom: Protista ⸻ FUNGI Characteristics: * Eukaryotic * Heterotrophic * Chitin cell walls * Reproduce with spores Examples: * Mushrooms * Mold * Yeast ⸻ External Digestion Release enzymes ↓ Digest food outside body ↓ Absorb nutrients ⸻ Fungi vs Plants FUNGI * Heterotrophic * Chitin * No chloroplasts PLANTS * Autotrophic * Cellulose * Chloroplasts ⸻ PLANTS Biodiversity vs Monoculture BIODIVERSITY * Many species * Stable ecosystem * Disease resistance MONOCULTURE * One crop species * Low diversity * Disease risk ⸻ Bryophytes Definition: Nonvascular plants Examples: * Mosses * Liverworts Characteristics: * No xylem * No phloem * Need water for reproduction ⸻ Vascular Plants Contain: * Xylem * Phloem ⸻ Xylem Function: Water and minerals Direction: Roots → Leaves ⸻ Phloem Function: Sugars Direction: Throughout plant ⸻ Alternation of Generations Sporophyte (2n) ↓ meiosis Spores (n) ↓ Gametophyte (n) ↓ Gametes ↓ fertilization Zygote (2n) ↓ Sporophyte ⸻ Moss Life Cycle Spores ↓ Gametophyte ↓ Egg + Sperm ↓ Zygote ↓ Sporophyte ↓ Capsule ↓ Spores Know: * Capsule * Sporophyte * Gametophyte * Spores ⸻ Fern Life Cycle Fern ↓ Sori ↓ Spores ↓ Prothallus ↓ Gametes ↓ Fertilization ↓ Young Fern Know: * Frond * Sori * Sporangia * Prothallus ⸻ Gymnosperms Characteristics: * Naked seeds * Cones * Wind pollination * Evergreen Examples: * Pine * Spruce * Fir ⸻ Angiosperms Characteristics: * Flowers * Fruit * Seeds enclosed Examples: * Apple tree * Rose * Maple ⸻ Flower Structure Anther * Produces pollen Pollen Grain * Male gamete Stigma * Receives pollen Style * Connects stigma and ovary Ovary * Contains ovules Ovule * Female gamete Petals * Attract pollinators ⸻ Plant Tissues Meristematic * Growth Dermal * Protection Ground * Photosynthesis * Storage Vascular * Transport ⸻ Leaf Structure Blade * Main leaf surface Petiole * Connects leaf to stem Cuticle * Reduces water loss Palisade Mesophyll * Photosynthesis Spongy Mesophyll * Gas exchange Veins * Xylem + Phloem ⸻ Stomata Openings in leaves. Functions: * Gas exchange * Water loss ⸻ Guard Cells Control opening and closing of stomata. ⸻ Transpiration Water loss from leaves. Functions: * Pulls water upward * Cools plant * Moves minerals ⸻ Simple vs Compound Leaves Simple: * One blade Compound: * Multiple leaflets ⸻ Monocots vs Dicots MONOCOTS * 1 cotyledon * Parallel veins * Fibrous roots * Flower parts in 3s Examples: Corn Grass DICOTS * 2 cotyledons * Net veins * Taproot * Flower parts in 4s or 5s Examples: Bean Maple ⸻ Seeds Contain: * Embryo * Stored food * Seed coat Functions: * Protection * Survival * Dispersal ⸻ Seed Dispersal Wind * Dandelion Water * Coconut Animals * Burrs Explosive * Touch-me-not ⸻ Fruit vs Vegetable Fruit: * Comes from ovary * Contains seeds Examples: Tomato Apple Pepper Vegetable: * Root, stem, leaf, or flower Examples: Carrot Celery Broccoli ⸻ Factors Affecting Plant Growth 1. Light 2. Water 3. Carbon dioxide 4. Temperature 5. Soil nutrients 6. Oxygen 7. Soil pH 8. Space 9. Pollinators 10. Disease and pests

Climate Catastrophe

Maxiemergenza e Medicina delle Catastrofi

Les catastrophes naturelles

les catastrophes naturelles

CNA mod 4 prevention and maagement of catatrophe and unsual occurences

Flashcards de Gestión Inmobiliaria y Catastro

🌪️ LES CATASTROPHES NATURELLES — ПРИРОДНІ КАТАСТРОФИ

🧠 CH 9: Intelligence & Neuropsych Testing Q: What does Spearman’s theory of intelligence propose? A: A general intelligence factor called g underlies all cognitive abilities. Q: What did Thurstone contribute to intelligence theory? A: Proposed multiple primary mental abilities instead of one general intelligence. Q: What is fluid intelligence? A: Problem-solving and reasoning in new situations. Q: What is crystallized intelligence? A: Learned knowledge and experience-based skills. Q: Who developed the Wechsler intelligence tests? A: David Wechsler. Q: What are the 3 Wechsler scales? A: WAIS (adults), WISC (children), WPPSI (preschool). Q: What are the 4 WAIS index scores? A: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, Processing Speed. Q: What is the Stanford-Binet test used for? A: Measuring general intelligence (IQ), especially in children. Q: What is neuropsychological testing used for? A: Assessing brain functioning (injury, dementia, learning disorders, etc.). Q: Name two major neuropsych batteries. A: Halstead-Reitan, Luria-Nebraska. ⸻ 🧠 CH 10: Personality Assessment Q: What is multimethod assessment? A: Using multiple types of assessment (tests, interviews, observation). Q: What is the MMPI-2? A: A true/false personality test measuring psychopathology. Q: What are MMPI validity scales used for? A: Detecting inconsistent answers, exaggeration, or faking. Q: What is malingering? A: Faking or exaggerating symptoms for external gain. Q: What is empirical criterion keying? A: MMPI method of selecting test items based on real group differences. Q: What is the MCMI-IV? A: Personality inventory based on Millon’s theory of personality disorders. Q: What is the Big Five model? A: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Q: What is the Beck Depression Inventory? A: Self-report measure of depression severity. Q: What is the Rorschach test? A: Inkblot test used to assess personality and unconscious processes. Q: What is the TAT? A: Storytelling test using ambiguous pictures. Q: What is behavioral assessment? A: Direct measurement of behavior through observation or recording. ⸻ 🧠 CH 15: Cognitive Therapy Q: Who developed CBT? A: Aaron Beck. Q: Who developed REBT? A: Albert Ellis. Q: What are automatic thoughts? A: Immediate, involuntary thoughts that affect emotions. Q: What is the cognitive triad? A: Negative views of self, world, and future. Q: What are cognitive distortions? A: Irrational thinking patterns (e.g., catastrophizing). Q: What is the goal of cognitive therapy? A: Change maladaptive thoughts to improve emotions/behavior. Q: What is the ABCDE model? A: Activating event → Beliefs → Consequences → Disputation → Effect. Q: What is mindfulness? A: Nonjudgmental awareness of thoughts and feelings. Q: What is ACT? A: Therapy focusing on acceptance and values-based action. Q: What is DBT used for? A: Emotion regulation and distress tolerance skills. ⸻ 🧠 CH 16: Group & Family Therapy Q: What did Yalom emphasize in group therapy? A: Interpersonal learning and universality. Q: What is universality? A: Realizing others share similar struggles. Q: What is group cohesiveness? A: Sense of belonging within the group. Q: What are the stages of group therapy? A: Initial, transition, working stage. Q: What is the main idea of family therapy? A: The system is the problem, not the individual. Q: What is circular causality? A: Each person influences others in a cycle. Q: What is an identified patient? A: The family member labeled as “the problem.” Q: What are boundaries in family systems? A: Rules defining closeness or separation (enmeshed vs disengaged). Q: What is a triangle in family therapy? A: When tension between two people involves a third person. ⸻ 🧠 CH 17: Child & Adolescent Psych Q: What are externalizing disorders? A: Outward behaviors (aggression, ADHD, conduct problems). Q: What are internalizing disorders? A: Inward distress (anxiety, depression). Q: Which are easier to detect? A: Externalizing disorders. Q: What is a developmental perspective? A: Considering age-related changes in behavior. Q: What is resilience? A: Ability to adapt despite adversity. Q: What are Grotberg’s resilience categories? A: I have, I am, I can. Q: What is play therapy? A: Therapy using play to express emotions in children. Q: What are two types of play therapy? A: Directive and nondirective. ⸻ 🧠 CH 18: Health Psychology Q: What is health psychology? A: Study of psychological factors in health and illness. Q: Who developed General Adaptation Syndrome? A: Hans Selye. Q: What are the 3 stages of GAS? A: Alarm, resistance, exhaustion. Q: What is cortisol? A: Stress hormone released by the body. Q: What is psychoneuroimmunology? A: Study of mind–brain–immune system interactions. Q: What is chronic stress linked to? A: Increased illness risk and immune suppression. Q: What is coping? A: Strategies to manage stress. Q: What is biofeedback? A: Using feedback to control physiological functions. ⸻ 🧠 CH 19: Forensic Psychology Q: What is forensic psychology? A: Application of psychology to the legal system. Q: What is competency to stand trial? A: Ability to understand legal proceedings and assist defense. Q: What is insanity defense? A: Not guilty by reason of mental illness at time of crime. Q: What is civil commitment? A: Court-ordered psychiatric hospitalization. Q: What is an expert witness? A: Psychologist who provides testimony in court. Q: What is voir dire? A: Jury selection questioning process. Q: What is malingering in forensic settings? A: Faking symptoms for legal advantage. Q: Which test is preferred in forensic assessment and why? A: MMPI-2 because validity scales detect deception. Q: Why are projective tests not preferred legally? A: Low reliability and subjective interpretation

5 The Age of Catastrophe

6 The age of Catastrophe (2)

Les catastrophes naturelles - Unité 5

Les catastrophes naturelles

Catastrophies

World History 2 - Quiz 2 (Notes pages 33-48) - Prof J----SUPREME INTERGALACTIC SPEEDRUN OF THE CENTURY THAT BECOMES CATASTROPHIC UNLESS WE STOP THE URANIUM GOLEMS FROM DISINTIGRATING THE INTERSTELLAR BEAM THAT IS HOLDING UP THE UNIVERSE BY THE STRANDS OF TIME

French: Module 5 C'était catastrophique! - It was catastrophic!

C4.1.2 Anxiety, IZOF and Catastrophe Theory

History exam 3: 1920s america the Roaring twenties: Prosperity, culture, change, and contradiction (1920s-1929) Nicknamed: Roaring twenties/ jazz age Post ww1 boom after war and flu pandemic recovery Shift: Rural tradition to urban modern consumer society Key themes: optimism, excess, hidden cracks Republican dominance “Return to normalcy” President: Harding (1921-23, scandals) Coolidge (1923-29, pro- business) Hoover (1929, crash) Laissez fair: low taxes, limited regulation Isolationism: rejected league of nations “ Age of prosperity”: rising wages, low unemployment (for many) Mass production: Assembly line, electricity, consumer goods Key industries: Autos, radio, appliances Rise of credit and advertising - mass consumption Uneven: Farmers struggled Automobile explosion: Model T - suburbs, roads Aviation milestone: Lindbergh’s 1927 solo Atlantic flight Radio: national culture and entertainment Household tech: Refrigerators, vacuums 19th amendment (1920): women vote Flappers: Short hair/ skirts, smoking, dancing, independence More women working, challenge norms New freedom in dating and social life Jazz age: Born in New Orleans Louis armstrong, duke ellington Hollywood boom: silent films- talkies (1927) Sports heroes: Babe ruth, Jack dempsy Dances And fads: Charleston, dance marathons Great migration: Black to northern cities Harlem explosion: Art literature, music Key figures: WRiter and poet langston hughes, writer zora neale hurston, jazz duke ellington Celebration of black identity 18th amendment (1919-33) banned alcohol Results: Speakeasies, bootlegging, organized crime Gangster: AL Capone and rise of mafia Widespread hypocrisy and corruption Roaring twenties: KKK resurgence: anti- immigrants black catholic Nativism: 1924 immigration quotas- new law restricting immigrants - target eastern and southern europeans Radical violence: Tulsa massacre (1921) Scope trial (1925): evolution vs religion Stock market Bull market Stock prices steadily climbed throughout the 1920s Margin buying Middle class investing Economy roaring Frantic buying in 1920s Stock prices separate from the value of company Economy begins to weaken Before the stock crash when did the American economy begin to cool off? 1928 According to a top investor when a shoe shine boy is giving stock picks its time to do what? Sell out When do most stock market crashes occur? september/ october In the worst single day how much did the stock market lose in value? 14 billion Who was worse in the short run? Small investor Stock prices begin to fall in september1929 Crash in october 1929 Black tuesday october 29,1929 Great depression Unemployment skyrockets Thousands of banks collapsed Individual; saving gone Cause; Abundance ‘Great glut” too much production Overexpansion of credit High tariff- trade dried up Effects High employment Homes and farms lost to foreclosure Homelessness and hunger Bread and soup lines “Hoovervilles” Makeshift towns of homeless people Hoover and depression What happened to local government and local charities relief efforts? They were overwhelmed Hoover reluctant to use federal government Reconstruction Finance corporation Government loans to big business and some state governments Hoover In 1924 congress voted a bonus payment to world war 1 veterans To be paid in 1945 Bonus army In 1932 around 20,000 veterans converge on WAshington during the depression Camped out and demand full bonus immediately Vote failed in congress Hoover ordered removal of those who refused to leave Bloody confrontation- hoover hurt politically in election year Election of 1932 Herbert hoover (r.) Franklin roosevelt (d) Roosevelt offers new deal Roosevelt wins in landslide Lame duck period between election and inauguration economy worsened Banking catastrophe loomed Roosevelt and the new deal “ only thing we have to fear is fear itself’ First hundred days Intense burst of legislation New deal ‘ Three R- relief, recovery, reform Fireside chats Emergency banking act 1933 Aimed to restore public confidence Banks shut down for a weeklong bank holiday Only solvent bank reopen Firesides chats Regular radio broadcast by Roosevelt Roosevelt's way of going directly to the public Built support for new deal legislation New deal Banking crisis dealt with first Bank examiners determined bank health Glass steagall banking reform act 1933 Banks prohibited from using depositors funds for risky investments Federal deposit insurance corporation Created by glass steagall Independent agency of federal government Insures bank deposits Prevents bank panics Securities exchange act 1934 Securities and exchange commission created Stop fraudulent stock market practices Greater transparency in market Regulation and enforcement to determine stock manipulation Example: trading laws established The great depression Noble experiment ends 3.2% wine and beer legalized first 21st Amendment 1933 Proposed in feb. and ratified dec. 1933 Only constitutional amendment ratified by special state conventions Prohibition ended “Alphabet soup” new deal programs Three- or four lettered acronyms describe most new deal programs Civilian conservation corps FDR created by executive order For unemployed unmarried men between 17-28 years old Helped shaped modern national and state park system Federal emergency relief act 1933 Federally funded jobs for state and local government work Civilian works administration Emergency employment Provided temporary jobs and paycheck Tennessee valley authority Massive federal project Construction of dams and reservoirs on Tennessee river Flood control and navigation improvements Creation of cheap hydroelectric power Covers parts of seven states Over 2.5 million people living at the time Provided jobs and creation of long term project $13b Works progress administration Largest most ambitious new deal agency Nearly every community in united states impacted by building projects WPA included federal arts projects Strawberry stadium WPA project #3014 Dust bowl Drought and wind = dust storms Powdery topsoil in arid regions of the plains blown away Large areas of the plains became uninhabitable Caused by nature and manmechanized farming Tens of thousands forced out Steinbeck's grapes of wrath Huey Long Senator and former governor of Louisiana Built thousands of miles roads in louisiana Free textbooks and school lunches Charity hospital established National radio show “share our wealth” program reached millions “Every man a king” 5k for each family by taxing the rich Proposed free college Proposed old age pensions Long: FDR new deal was not bold enough Roosevelt worried long could be third party candidate Long assassinated at age 42 in state capital sept. 1935 Long help inspired social security Social security act 1935 One of the most far reaching laws ever Retirement pension regular payments Provided for federal- state unemployment insurance Disability payments Financed by payroll tax paid by employees and employers Over 70 million people receive social security payments today Wagner act 1935 National labor relations act 1935 Aimed to balance power between labor and management Workers rights Labor has right to organize and collective bargaining Strike without employer retaliation Government board established labor secretary Oversees workplace rights Election 1936 Franklin roosevelt vs alf landon Moderate republican who accepted some new deal reforms Republicans - franklin “Deficit “ roosevelt Republicans carried only two states Landslide win for roosevelt Democrats controlled both houses of congress Twentieth amendment Ratified in 1933 changed inauguration date to january 20 shorten lame duck period by 6 weeks Roosevelt sworn in on jan. 20 1937 Supreme court a road block for new deal Six of nine justices over the age of seventy Roosevelt second term Court packing plan Supreme court ruled some new deal laws unconstitutional Roosevelt implied justices were far behind on work Proposed to add six new justices to supreme court All new judges to be appointed by roosevelt Roosevelt hurt politically Court packing failed in congress However the supreme court began to be more sympathetic to new deal Fair labor standards act 1938 (wage and hours) Minimum wage established 40 hour work week Labor under 16 years old restricted “Roosevelt recession” sharp downtown in economy in 1937 Became a little more difficult to pass new deal legislation Mid-term election 1938 Republicans cut into large democratic majorities National attention turned to internal affairs Germany and japan New deal momentum slows Government soon transformed because of World war 2 World War 2 Neutrality Acts Passed by congress in 1935,1936,1937,1939 Because of the rise of fascism in Europe and possibility of another war Isolationist view still prevailed Four laws in all temporary at first, later made permanent Restricted trade with warning nations Embargo of arms Banned loans from U.S banks “Cash and carry” provision Causes of ww2 Problems with treaty of versallies Germany left out of treaty negotiations Everything on Germany War guilt cause Reparations payments Restriction on military Loss of territory Economic problems and general dissatisfaction allows for the rise of fascism Fascism Benito mussolini Gained power in italy 1922 Led the fascist party Rise of Fascist Nationalistic and Militaristic Dictators Difficult Life in post-world war 1 Radical extremism and the Nazi party Born out of post ww1 conditions Weimar republic German government after WW1 Weimar republic failed Nazi party slowly gained seats in German Parliament Adolph Hitler Leader of nazi party Gained power in Germany 1933 German problems blamed on Treaty of Versailles and Jewish population Mein kampf Published 1925 Autobiography antisemitic manifesto of hitler Wrote while in prison Plans for german future Labensraum Living space needed for the aaryn race Nuremberg laws 1935 Race laws against the german jews Restriction on jewish population citizenship denied intermarriage denied Hitler Hitler embarked on remilitarization of germany Remilitarization was violation of treaty of versailles Rhineland Area along french border Hilter placed troops 1936 German troops in Finland a violation of treaty of Versailles Austria German speaking Hitler born in austria Annexed 1938 making austria part of germany Sudetenland Area of czechoslovakia A few million german speaking residents Hitler demanded sudetenland Munich conference September 1938 Hilter invited british P.M neville chamberlain and french president Appeasement french and british give hitler what he wants Hitler takes all of Czechoslovakia within six months Nazi soviet nonaggressionpact Aug he