BIO 2102 Lab Practical I Study Guide
Contents
I. Endocrine 2
A. Learning Objectives 2
B. Histology 2
C. Anatomy 2
II. Blood 3
A. Learning Objectives 3
B. Histology 3
III. Heart 4
A. Learning Objectives 4
B. Histology 4
C. Anatomy 4
D. Physiology 6
III. Blood Vessels 7
A. Learning Objectives 7
B. Histology 7
C. Anatomy 7
D. Physiology 8
V. Lymph and Immune 9
A. Learning Objectives 9
B. Histology 9
C. Anatomy 9
I. Endocrine
A. Learning Objectives
1. Define what constitutes an endocrine gland and a hormone.
2. Locate and identify all specified endocrine glands and structures on a model, diagram, dissected specimen, slide or other provided material.
3. Identify at least one hormone produced by each specified endocrine gland.
4. Explain a general physiological effect that each hormone exerts on its target tissue.
B. Histology.
1. Thyroid
a) Colloid-filled follicles
b) Parafollicular cells
c) Follicular cells
2. Pancreas
a) Pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans)
3. Anterior Pituitary (adenohypophysis)
4. Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)
5. Adrenal
a) Cortex
(1) Zona glomerulosa,
(2) Zona fasciculata,
(3) Zona reticularis,
b) Medulla (containing chromaffin cells)
C. Anatomy
1. Hypothalamus
2. Infundibulum
3. Anterior Pituitary (adenohypophysis)
4. Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)
5. Thyroid-
a) Right lobe
b) Left lobe
c) Isthmus
6. Adrenal
a) Cortex
b) Medulla
7. Pineal
8. Parathyroid
9. Pancreas
10. Thymus (illustration only)
11. Ovaries
12. Testes
13. Identify the following organs/structures on a sheep brain:
a) Pituitary
b) Pineal gland
c) Infundibulum
II. Blood
A. Learning Objectives
1. Be able to recognize the blood cells on a prepared human blood slide.
5. Identify the relative abundance of each of the five leukocytes.
• Neutrophils
o 45-75% of normal count
o Neutral reaction to the dye
o Granules look light pink
o Nucleus has 2 to 5 lobes; phagocytosis
o 1 responder
o Has granules
• Eosinophil
o 1-3%; granules are large and stain orange (red or red/purple)
o Nucleus 2-lobed; weakly phagocytic
o Detoxifies foreign substances and breaks down clots
o Releases histamines: high count means an allergic reaction (leaky)
o Phagocytizes antibody/antigen clumps resulting from allergic reactions
o Fights parasites
2. Describe the function of each leukocyte.
3. Classify leukocytes into granulocytes or agranulocytes.
4. Explain the role of antigens and antibodies in the blood typing process and the concept of universal recipient and universal donor.
5. Label blood typing slides in terms of ABO group and Rh factor.
6. Explain what a hematocrit test measures.
7. Interpret hematocrit test results and identify whether they are in a normal range.
8. Be able to read and interpret a basic Tallquist hemoglobin test (as demonstrated in lab).
B. Histology
1. Erythrocyte (RBC)
2. Platelet
3. Neutrophil
4. Eosinophil
5. Basophil
6. Lymphocyte
7. Monocyte
III. Heart
A. Learning Objectives
6. Trace the Pathway of Blood Through the Heart: Identify and trace the flow of blood through the heart, describing the roles of major structures (e.g., chambers, valves, vessels) and differentiate between pulmonary, systemic, and cardiac circulation.
• The blood starts in the superior & inferior vena cava deoxygenated blood
• Then it goes to the right atrium; which delivers deoxygenated blood into the right ventricle
• After the right atrium it goes through the tricuspid valve
• Once it goes through the tricuspid valve it goes into the right ventricle; which delivers deoxygenated blood to the lungs
• Next it goes through the pulmonary semilunar valve & goes to the pulmonary arteries (brings blood away from the heat) & into the lungs
• After that it comes back into the pulmonary veins (brings blood back to the heart)
• Brings the blood oxygenated into the left atrium; which receives deoxygenated blood from the lungs & delivers it to the left ventricle
• After the left atrium it goes through the bicuspid (mitral) valve; which allows the blood to pass to the left ventricle
• Then the mitral valve helps manage the flow of blood to the left ventricle
• The left ventricle; gives the oxygenated blood to the aorta
• After the left ventricle it goes through the aortic semilunar valve and to the rest of the body
7. Compare Human and Sheep Hearts: Compare and contrast the anatomy and functionality of the human heart with that of a sheep heart, focusing on structural differences and their implications for laboratory dissection and study.
• Human heart
o On average the heart is 12 cm long and 8-9 cm wide
o Have 4 chambers: right & left atriums, right & left ventricles
o Pumps 5 quarts of blood each minute
• Sheep heart
o Is about 1.5 times smaller than the human heart
o Have 4 chambers: right & left atriums, right & left ventricles
o Is more ventrally tilted along its axis than is the human heart and has a relatively blunt apex formed entirely by the left ventricle
8. Understand the Pericardium: Describe the structure of the pericardium, including its layers (fibrous and serous pericardium), and explain its protective and functional roles in supporting cardiac activity.
• Fibrous pericardium
o The outermost layer
o A tough connective tissue layer that serves to protect and anchor the heart into position
• Serous pericardium
o Consists of:
• Parietal pericardium
o Tough “sac” around the heart
• Visceral pericardium (epicardium)
o On the surface of the heart and is therefore also part of the heart wall
• Pericardial cavity
o The space between a & b above
o This space is filled with serous fluid which helps to lubricate the entire region surrounding the heart
o This makes the heart movement easier (reduced friction) as it continually changes shape over & over in its pattern of contraction and relaxation as it pumps blood
9. Explore Cardiac Tissue and Intercalated Discs: Examine the histological structure of cardiac tissue, explain how its features support its function (e.g., contractility, conduction), and describe the components of an intercalated disc, including gap junctions and desmosomes.
• Intercalated discs are part of the sarcolemma and contain 2 structures important in cardiac muscle contraction
o Gap junctions and desmosomes
• A gap junction forms channels between adjacent cardiac muscle fibers that allow the depolarizing current produced by cations to flow from one cardiac muscle cell to the next
• Desmosomes are specialized adhesive protein complexes that localize to intrcellular junctions and are responsible for maintaing the mechanical integrity of tissues
10. Fetal Circulatory Structures: Describe the role and function of the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale in fetal circulation, and explain the relationship between these structures and their adult counterparts (e.g., ligamentum arteriosum, fossa ovalis) in postnatal circulation.
• Ductus arteriosus
o Ductus arteriosus is a shunt in fetal circulation that diverts blood from the pulmonary artery directly to the aorta, instead of the lungs
o Function: is found in a fetal heart and provides a direct opening from the pulmonary artery to the aorta
o Because the fetal lungs do not work it receives oxygenated blood from the mother, blood can pass directly from the pulmonary artery into the aorta to be pumped to the rest of the body
• Ductus venosus
o Ductus venosus is another shunt in fetal ciruculation that diverts oxygen-rich blood directly from the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava and the fetal heart
o The ductus venosus bypasses the liver
• Foramen ovale
o Formamen ovale is a shunt for fetal circulation to divert blood directly from the right atrium to the left atrium
o Because the fetus is receiving oxygen directly from the mother via the umbilical vein, the fetus’s lungs are not working actively while utero
o The foramen ovale thus is a fetal structure shunt to enhance efficiency of blood flow, bypassing the lungs
B. Histology
1. Cardiac muscle slide
a) Intercalated discs
b) Cardiomyocytes
c) Striae
d) Nuclei
C. Anatomy
1. Human Heart
a) Atria
(1) Right
(2) Left
b) Ventricles
(1) Right
(2) Left
c) Valves
(1) Right atrioventricular (tricuspid)
(2) Left atrioventricular (bicuspid or mitral)
(3) Pulmonary semilunar
(4) Aortic semilunar
d) Apex
e) Interventricular septum
f) Interatrial septum
g) Sulci
(1) Coronary sulcus
(2) Anterior interventricular sulcus
(3) Posterior interventricular sulcus
h) Aorta
(1) Ascending aorta
(2) Aortic arch
i) Brachiocephalic artery
j) Left common carotid artery
k) Left subclavian artery
l) Superior vena cava
m) Inferior vena cava
n) Pulmonary trunk
o) Pulmonary arteries
(1) Right
(2) Left
p) Pulmonary veins (4)
(1) Right and left superior
(2) Right and left inferior
q) Coronary arteries:
(1) Right marginal
(2) Posterior interventricular
(3) Left anterior interventricular
(4) Circumflex
r) Coronary sinus
s) Cardiac veins
(1) Great
(2) Middle
(3) Small
t) Chordae tendineae
u) Papillary muscles
v) Fossa ovalis
2. Sheep Heart
a) Atria
b) Auricles
c) Ventricles
d) Aorta
e) Brachiocephalic artery
f) Superior vena cava
g) Inferior vena cava
h) Pulmonary trunk
i) Anterior interventricular coronary artery
j) Myocardium
k) Interventricular septa
l) Interatrial septa
m) Epicardium
n) Apex of heart
o) Sulci
(1) Coronary sulcus
(2) Anterior interventricular sulcus
(3) Posterior interventricular sulcus
p) Valves
(1) Right atrioventricular (tricuspid)
(2) Left atrioventricular (bicuspid or mitral)
(3) Pulmonary semilunar
(4) Aortic semilunar
q) Chordae tendineae
r) Papillary muscles
D. Physiology
0. Identify and label the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave on an ECG tracing in a normal sinus rhythm.
1. Describe the conduction event recorded by each deflection wave on an ECG (e.g., depolarization of the ventricles).
2. Define and explain the characteristics of an arrhythmia.
3. Diagnose major abnormalities on an ECG tracing, including junctional rhythm, second-degree heart block, ventricular fibrillation, and atrial fibrillation.
4. Explain the significance of observing several P waves in a row before a QRS complex on an ECG.
5. Discuss the significance of the PR (PQ) interval and what it would mean if this value were too short or too long in terms of heart events.
6. ECG Handout
a) Indicate the normal duration of one complete ECG rhythm and its intervals, including the PR and QT intervals and QRS complex.
b) Calculate the PR and QT intervals and QRS complex from an ECG reading.
III. Blood Vessels
A. Learning Objectives
7. Differentiate between an artery and a vein in terms of both structure and function.
• Arteries
o Arteries are vessels that transport blood away from the heart
o Expect for the pulmonary & umbilical arteries, they carry oxygenated blood
o Because they are exposed to the highest pressure of any vessels, they have the thickest tunica media
o The elastin allows them to stretch & recoil & the smooth muscle allows them to constrict & dilate
• Veins
o Veins are farthest from the heart, so they experience the lease pressure
o Their walls are thinner than arterial walls and their lumens are larger, allowing them to accommodate a large volume of blood
o The tunica adventitia is the heaviest wall layer in veins
8. Locate all major arteries and veins listed under the anatomy section below.
9. Explain why veins tend to be more superficial than arteries.
• Veins tend to be more superficial because veins carry blood from your outer tissues near the surface of your skin to your deep veins.
10. Name four vessels in the body that can be easily palpated to check a pulse.
• The 4 vessels in your body that is easily to check a pulse are:
• Radial, brachial, femoral, popliteal, carotid, posterior tibial, & dorsal pedis arteries
B. Histology
1. Artery
a) Tunica interna (intima)
b) Tunica media
c) Tunica externa (adventitia)
2. Vein
a) Tunica interna (intima)
b) Tunica media
c) Tunica externa (adventitia)
C. Anatomy
1. Arteries
a) Thoracic descending aorta
b) Abdominal descending aorta
c) Brachiocephalic
d) Common carotid
e) Circle of Willis
f) Vertebral arteries
g) Subclavian
h) Pulmonary trunk
i) Axillary
j) Brachial
k) Radial
l) Ulnar
m) Celiac trunk
n) Superior mesenteric
o) Inferior mesenteric
p) Renal
q) Gonadal -ovarian or testicular
r) Common Iliac
s) External iliac
t) Internal iliac
u) Median sacral
v) Umbilical
w) Femoral
x) Deep femoral
y) Popliteal
z) Dorsalis pedis
aa) Posterior tibial
2. Veins
a) Superior vena cava
b) Inferior vena cava
c) Brachiocephalic
d) Internal jugular
e) External jugular
f) Axillary
g) Brachial
h) Basilic
i) Cephalic
j) Median cubital
k) Radial
l) Ulnar
m) Umbilical
n) Renal
o) Gonadal -ovarian, testicular
p) Common Iliac
q) External iliac
r) Internal Iliac
s) Median sacral
t) Femoral
u) Deep femoral
v) Great saphenous
D. Physiology
1. Describe how blood pressure is obtained (using a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope and explain what systolic and diastolic numbers represent.
2. Calculate a pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure (MAP) when given systolic and diastolic numbers.
3. Describe how to take a radial and common carotid pulse.
4. Explain how nerve innervation regulates heart rate.
5. Define bradycardia and tachycardia.
6. What is the relationship between cardiac output, heart rate, and stroke volume? Be able to describe how one variable may be altered to compensate for changes in another.
7. Describe what causes each heart sound that you may detect when auscultating the heart.
V. Lymph and Immune
A. Learning Objectives
0. Identify the primary locations of lymph nodes and elucidate their pivotal role in immune function.
1. Describe the spleen's role in facilitating immune responses.
2. Describe the thymus's role in immune function.
B. Histology
1. Lymph node
a) Germinal centers
a) Cortex
C. Anatomy
1. Vermiform appendix
2. Palatine tonsils
3. Pharyngeal tonsils
4. Lingual tonsils
5. Spleen
6. Thymus gland
7. Lymph nodes
a) Axillary
b) Inguinal
c) Cervical
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