AP Psychology Unit One Vocabulary

biopsychosocial approach

integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Hindsight Bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. It examines assumptions, hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Theory

explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors and events

Hypothesis

testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables (e.g. human intelligence as what an intelligence test measures)

Survey

technique for find out the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

False Consensus Effect

tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

population

All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study (e.g. in a national study it would be the whole country)

Random Sample

sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Scatterplot (scattergram) (Scatter diagram)

Graphed cluster of dots representing two variables. Slope shows relationship between variables. Amount of scatter shows strength of correlation.

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

when an investigator manipulates factors (independent variables) to observe effects on behavior or mental process (dependent variable)

Double-blind Procedure

experiment where research participants and research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants receive the treatment or a placebo

Experimental Condition

condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control Condition

condition of an experiment that serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance to minimize preexisting differences between groups

Independent Variable

experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Mode

most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Median

middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Culture

enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and the traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

humanistic psychology

perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality

counseling psychology

branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (school, work, marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Aristole

Greek philosopher; argued that knowledge comes from experience stored in memories (3rd Greek philosopher); derived principles from observation

James

introduced the school of functionalism

Calkins

first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA)

introspection

examination of one's own thoughts and feelings, unreliable, others cannot observe them

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Replication

repeating research studies, usually with different participants and situations, to see if findings extend to others participants and circumstances

Case Study

observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Correlation

measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other (between -1 and +1)

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of fake substance or condition

Dependent Variable

outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Mean

arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Range

difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Statistical Significance

statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

empiricism

view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and flourishes through observation and experiment

structuralism

early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

functionalism

school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

nature-nurture issue

longstanding controversy over relative contributions that genes and experience make to psychological traits and behaviors

natural selection

inherited trait variations that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on

levels of analysis

differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

psychiatry

branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide drugs and therapy

Socrates

Greek philosopher who viewed mind and body as separable and assumed knowledge was innate (1st Greek philosopher)

Plato

Greek philosopher; viewed mind and body as separable; assumed knowledge was innate (2nd Greek philosopher); derived principles from logic

Locke

1600s, believed the knowledge originates in experience, memories, and senses

Wundt

1879, founded the first psychological laboratory

Titchener

1800s, introduced the school of structuralism with introspection, Wundt's student

Washburn

first woman to receive a PhD in psychology

Pavlov

pioneered the study of learning

Freud

personality theorist, introduced psychoanalysis

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

Piaget

studied children

Rogers and Maslow

forged humanistic psychology because Freudian psychology and behaviorism which were too mechanistic

Darwin

1859, naturalist, explained species variation by proposing the process of evolution

psychodynamic

psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

social-cultural perspective

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures