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How does the endocrine system regulate the body compared to the nervous system?
The endocrine system uses hormones for slower, long-lasting effects, while the nervous system uses electrical signals for rapid, short-term responses.
What are the primary functions of the endocrine system?
Regulates metabolism, growth, reproduction, stress responses, and homeostasis.
Name the major endocrine glands and their general locations. (9)
Hypothalamus (brain)
Pituitary (brain)
Thyroid (neck)
Parathyroid (behind thyroid in neck)
Adrenal glands (on top of kidneys)
Pineal gland (brain)
Pancreas (abdomen)
Ovaries (pelvic cavity)
Testes (scrotum)
What distinguishes endocrine glands from exocrine glands?
Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream, while exocrine glands use ducts to secrete substances like sweat or enzymes.
How do hormones act on cells?
Hormones bind to specific receptors on target cells, initiating a cascade of biochemical changes.
How do steroid hormones act on a cell?
steroid hormones cross the cell membrane, bind to intracellular receptors, and alter gene expression.
How do non-steroid hormones act on a cell?
Non-steroid hormones bind to cell surface receptors, triggering second messenger pathways inside the cell.
What is positive feedback?
Positive feedback amplifies a process (e.g., oxytocin in childbirth).
What hormones are secreted by the hypothalamus?
Releasing and inhibiting hormones (e.g., TRH, CRH).
What hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?
ACTH, TSH, GH, LH, FSH, and prolactin.
What hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary?
Oxytocin and ADH (antidiuretic hormone).
What hormone is secreted by the thyroid gland?
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) and calcitonin.
What hormone is secreted by the parathyroid gland?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
What hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
What hormones are secreted by the adrenal cortex?
Cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens.
What hormone is secreted by the pineal gland?
Melatonin
What hormones are secreted by the pancreas?
Insulin and glucagon.
What hormones are secreted by the ovaries?
Estrogen and progesterone.
What hormones are secreted by the testes?
Testosterone.
What is the function of insulin?
Lowers blood glucose levels by facilitating glucose uptake into cells.
What is the function of glucagon?
Raises blood glucose levels by promoting glycogen breakdown in the liver.
What is the function of norepinephrine?
Enhances alertness, increases heart rate, and triggers fight-or-flight responses.
What is the function of epinephrine?
Similar to norepinephrine; increases heart rate, dilates airways, and mobilizes energy reserves.
What is the function of thyroid hormones?
Regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
What is the function of calcitonin?
Lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone resorption.
What is the function of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption.
What is the function of oxytocin?
Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during breastfeeding.
Describe type 1 diabetes mellitus.
An autoimmune condition where the pancreas produces little or no insulin.
Describe type 2 diabetes mellitus.
A condition where cells become resistant to insulin or the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin.
What is the function of the cornea?
Focuses light entering the eye.
What is the function of the iris?
Controls the size of the pupil, regulating light entry.
What is the retina?
The layer of the eye containing photoreceptors (rods and cones) for vision.
What is rhodopsin and where is it found?
A light-sensitive pigment in rods for low-light vision.
What are erythrolabe, chlorolabe, and cyanolabe?
Pigments in cones sensitive to red, green, and blue light, respectively.
What are the three types of tears and their functions?
Basal tears: Keep the eye moist.
Reflex tears: Wash out irritants.
Emotional tears: Linked to stress and emotion
What are the six extraocular muscles and their actions?
Superior rectus: Elevates eye.
Inferior rectus: Depresses eye.
Medial rectus: Moves eye medially.
Lateral rectus: Moves eye laterally.
Superior oblique: Rotates eye downward and laterally.
Inferior oblique: Rotates eye upward and laterally.
why are two eyes required for stereoscopic vision?
To provide depth perception by combining slightly different images from each eye.
What are the benefits of stereoscopic vision?
Improved depth perception and spatial awareness.
What is the difference between conductive and sensorineural hearing loss?
Conductive: Issues in the outer or middle ear blocking sound waves. Sensorineural: Damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve.
What is the difference between dynamic and static equilibrium?
Dynamic: Maintains balance during motion (semicircular canals). Static: Maintains balance when stationary (otolith organs in the vestibule)
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