Final Exam Review Questions ~ Anatomy

Describe the differences in the types of regulation by the endocrine vs. the nervous system 

Describe the functions of the endocrine system

List the major endocrine glands and their general location (body cavity)

How do endocrine glands differ from exocrine glands

What are the pathways of hormone action?

1. How do steroid hormones act on the cell?

2. How do non steroid hormones act on the cell

Explain positive and negative feedback

Know the location and secretions of the following 

1. Hypothalamus 

2. Anterior pituitary gland 

3. Posterior pituitary lobes 

4. Thyroid gland 

5. Parathyroid gland

6. Adrenal medulla 

7. Adrenal cortex

8. Pineal gland

9. Pancreas 

10. Ovaries

11. Testes

Know the function of the following hormones 

1. Insulin

2. Glucagon

3. Norepinephrine 

4. Epinephrine

5. Thyroid hormones

6. Calcitonin 

7. Parathyroid hormone

8. Oxytocin

Describe type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Describe the structure, function, location of the following 

1. Eyebrows 

2. Eyelids

3.  Lacrimal Gland

4.  Nasolacrimal duct 

5. Sclera 

6. Cornea 

7. Choroid

8.  Ciliary body 

9. Iris 

10. pupil 

11. Retina 

12. Retinal Isomers 

 Describe the function and composition of the three types of tears. 

 List and describe the action of each of the six extraocular muscles. 

Why does the eye have so many muscles to move it? 

Describe the types of cells within the retina and their function. 

Explain how each of the piments below are involved in vision. Identify if the pigments are found in rods, cones, or somewhere else. 

1. Rhodopsin

2.  Erythrolabe 

3. Chlorolabe 

4. Cyanolabe

___________ is an interneuron that receives and integrates information from multiple photoreceptors. It sends the information and regulates activities of bipolar cells. 

___________ is an interneuron that receives information from bipolar cells, regulates and integrates information from bipolar and ganglion cells.

Explain the visual nerve pathway. 

1. Where is the right lateral visual field processed in the brain?

2.  Where is the left medial visual field processed in the brain?

Explain how an action potential is generated in the eye.

Explain why two eyes required stereoscopic vision. 

What are the benefits of stereoscopic vision? 

Explain how 3D glasses work 

Explain how and why we require accommodation in vision. 

1. How do age related changes to the eye alter our ability to accommodate?

Explain the following conditions include the symptoms, risk factors and treatment.

1.  Myopia, 

2. Hyperopia 

3. Presbyopia 

4. Cataracts 

5. Macular degeneration 

6. Glaucoma 

7. Astigmatism 

Describe structural receptors types

Describe the types and characteristics of receptors for touch and pressure.

 Describe the types and characteristics of temperature receptors 

How do methanol and capsaicin alter receptor channels 

Describe the types, characteristics and regulation of nocieceptors 

Describe sensory adaptation. 

 Describe types, location, and characteristics of human gustatory receptors,

1.  What cranial nerves are associated with these receptors? 

2. What other receptors are important in the “taste” of food.

Describe how genotype might impact your gustatory receptors. 

Describe types, location, and characteristics of human olfactory receptor cells

Explain the relation between memory and olfaction 

How are we able to distinguish between sounds of different pitches? 

 Explain how we can identify the location of a sound. 

Describe the similarities and differences between conductive hearing loss and sensorineural loss 

Explain the risk factors for hearing loss. 

1. Explain how and why you should protect your auditory receptors from damage. 

 Explain the symptoms, causes and treatment for the following conditions. 

1. Anosmia 

2. Tinnitus 

3. Vertigo 

4. Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV) 

5. Meniere’s disease

Explain dynamic and static equilibrium 

1. Describe the structures and receptors involved with each. 

What are otoconia and describe how the function.

Describe the age related changes in the ear.

 Describe the function of the following structures 

1. Auricle or Pinna

2. External ear canal 

3. External auditory meatus

4.  Tympanic membrane 

5. Auditory ossicles (Malleus, Incus and Stapes) 

6. Round window 

7. Oval window

8.  Eustachian (auditory) tube 

9. Semicircular canals 

10. Cochlea

11.  Vestibule 

12. Vestibular n.

13.  Cochlear n. 

14.  Ear wax 

15. Organ of Corti 

16. Stereocilia 

17. Otolith organs 

18. Utricle 

19. Saccule

Describe the characteristics of the autonomic nervous system

Describe the characteristics of the parasympathetic system

Describe the characteristics of the sympathetic system

Complete the table

What are the two types of autonomic synapses?

 What neurotransmitter is released and what are the classes of receptors found in each type? 

 How do afferent and efferent compare in somatic and autonomic reflexes.

Describe the parasympathetic and sympathetic responses of body systems.

What is referred pain? 

1. How may referred pain of a “heart attack” differ in men and women? 

How does nicotine affect the autonomic nervous system. 

How does phenylephrine impact autonomic response 

Scopolamine is a muscarinic antagonist and blocks parasympathetic function, if taken in large quantities it may be fatal. How might it impact the iris and pupil?

What are the five sections of a neurological exam?

Describe the following 

1. Romberg test

2. Pronator drift

Complete the table ‘

Define the divisions and of the nervous system and their functions including:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

3. Sensory System

4. Motor System

5. Somatic System

6. Autonomic System

7. Parasympathetic System

8. Sympathetic System 

Explain the structure and function of the following

1. Sensory receptors

2. Exteroceptors

3. Interoceptors

4. Proprioceptors

5. Afferent nerves

6. Efferent nerves

7. Ganglia 

8. Mixed nerves

9. Dermatons

Describe the difference between sensation and perception and what parts of the nervous system are involved in each. Provide 2 examples

Describe the locations and types of functions of general senses 

Describe the structure and function of the following 

1. Nerves 

2. Epineurium 

3. Perineurim 

4. Endoneurium

List the cranial nerves by name and number 

1. Describe their individual location and functions and if they are sensory, mixed or motor

2. What is the name and function of CN V3

Which cranial nerve is controls swallowing and parasympathetic efferent fibers to control heart rate, respiration, digestive activity.

List the cranial nerves that control eye movement 

Your friend had surgery on her face and now has paralysis of her right side. Her surgeon explained during the surgical repair a cranial nerve was damaged. What cranial nerve do you think would cause this type of symptom and why? 

Briefly describe how each cranial nerve function is tested in a clinical exam (review video if needed)

 Describe the structure and function of the spinal cord including the structures below 

1. Central canal

2. Dorsal root

3. Dorsal root ganglion

4. Ventral roots

5. Conus medullaris 

6. Cauda equina 

7. Filum terminale

8.  Spinal nerves

 Describe the possible cause and symptoms of an injury to the phrenic nerve 

What cranial nerve extends into the thoracic cavity? 

Describe the possible causes and symptoms of an injury to the following brachial plexus 

Describe the symptoms, risk factors and cause of shingles. 

Describe the pathway of a spinal reflex. Why are they important?

Describe the newborn reflexes

Describe the action required to stimulate and the reflex behavior generated for the following

1. Withdrawal reflex

2. Plantar reflex

3. Patellar reflex

 Describe the functions and components of the Central Nervous System (CNS)

Describe the characteristics and functions of the dura mater, arachnoid mater and the pia mater.

 Describe the following structures 

1. Falx cerebri 

2. Tentorium cerebelli 

3. Arachnoid granulation 

4. Ventricles of the brain 

What is the composition of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)? 

1. Where is it produced? 

2. What type of cells produce CSF? 

3. Describe the flow of CSF. 

Describe the functions and importance of CSF. 

Explain the following procedures and why they may be used.

1. Lumbar puncture 

2. Spinal anesthesia 

3. Epidural 

Describe the importance of the Blood Brain Barrier. 

1. Describe the three layers a molecule from the blood must pass through in order to enter a brain capillary

What substances are not able to cross the blood brain barrier? 

What substance cross the blood brain barrier? 

What substances are actively transported out?

Describe the function of the spinal cord and brain

Describe the location and functions of the brain

 Describe the effects of brain injuries on specific lobes of the cerebrum. 

What is Neuroplasticity? 

Describe the variation in symptoms (from video) in patients with injuries in different lobes of the brain.

Complete the table

Describe the levels of spinal injury and effects

What is the neural tube defect 

1. When does it occur

2. What vitamin may be recommended

3. Briefly describe spina bifida and anencephaly

What do the following embryonic structures form? Identify the structure that grows more rapidly than others 

1. Neural tube

2. Prosencephalon

3. Mesencephalon

4. Rhombencephalon

5. End of neural tube