Ultimate Guide (IB)
HL Biological Approach to Understanding Behavior
The Brain and Behaviour
Assumes that behavior has physiological origins (e.g., brain structure, neurotransmitters, hormones).
Bidirectional relationship: biology affects behavior, and behavior can influence biology.
Case Studies
Limitations:
No cause-effect due to lack of variable manipulation.
Low generalizability (based on individuals).
Cannot be replicated.
Pre-accident data often based on unreliable memories.
Triangulation:
Data: Multiple sources of data.
Method: Multiple methods.
Researcher: Multiple researchers increase reliability.
Theory: Multiple perspectives (biological, cognitive, sociocultural).
Technology in Brain Research
MRI: Non-invasive, high-res brain structure (e.g., HM study).
PET: Measures glucose metabolism, shows activity but low resolution.
fMRI: Non-invasive, shows real-time brain activity via blood flow.
Localization vs. Plasticity
Localization: Specific functions in specific brain areas (e.g., hippocampus = memory).
Distributive processing: Many areas work together for complex tasks.
Plasticity: Brain structure changes with experience (e.g., dendritic branching).
Rosenzweig et al. (1972): Enriched rat environments = thicker cortex.
Maguire et al. (2000): London taxi drivers = larger hippocampi.
Limbic System Functions
Amygdala: Fear, emotional memory.
Hippocampus: Memory transfer.
Hypothalamus: Emotion, hunger, circadian rhythm.
Basal ganglia: Habit formation.
Nucleus accumbens: Motivation, addiction.
Neurotransmission
Neurons: Send messages via action potentials.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers across synapses.
Synaptic Plasticity:
LTP: Repeated use strengthens synapse.
Pruning: Unused synapses removed.
Excitatory (e.g., acetylcholine), Inhibitory (e.g., GABA).
Memory Link:
GABA: Important for working memory.
Acetylcholine: Memory in the hippocampus.
Agonists and Antagonists
Agonists: Enhance neurotransmitter effect (e.g., nicotine).
Antagonists: Block neurotransmitters (e.g., scopolamine).
Hormones & Pheromones
Hormones:
Adrenaline: Emotional memory (Cahill & McGaugh).
Cortisol: Stress response.
Oxytocin: Social bonding.
Pheromones:
May affect human behavior (e.g., AND, EST), but research is limited and inconclusive.
Genetics and Depression
Epigenetics: Environment affects gene expression.
Twin Studies:
MZ twins show higher concordance rates than DZ, but not 100%.
Key Studies:
Kendler et al. (2006): Depression is ~38% heritable.
Caspi et al. (2003): 5-HTT gene affects depression risk after stress.
Evolutionary Psychology
Natural selection: Behaviors evolve to aid survival/reproduction.
Social Competition Hypothesis (Price, 1994):
Depression may reduce conflict after social defeat.
Pathogen Host Defense Hypothesis (Raison & Miller, 2012):
Depression may help avoid infection; linked to immune system/inflammation.
Animal Research
Used when human research would be unethical or impractical.
Benefits:
Shorter life spans.
Controlled environments.
Studies:
Rogers & Kesner (2003): ACh and memory in rats.
LeDoux (1994): Amygdala and fear.
Harlow: Attachment in monkeys.
Ethics:
Regulated by laws (e.g., Animal Welfare Act, EU Directive).
Implications:
Human behavior shaped by gene-environment interactions (e.g., Caspi & Cases studies on aggression).
HL Cognitive approach to understanding behaviour
Schema Theory
Schema theory is central to cognitive psychology and explains how we organize and interpret information. Schemas are mental frameworks derived from prior experiences, which help us process new information efficiently. They also influence our behavior and memory.
Schemas: These are mental representations of knowledge based on experience. When new information comes in, it is processed by comparing it to existing schemas. This makes our interactions with the world more predictable but can lead to biases or errors in judgment.
Scripts: A type of schema related to sequences of events, often learned through cultural interactions. Scripts guide our behavior in familiar contexts, like how to behave in a restaurant or how to conduct a meeting.
Schema Theory and Memory
Schema theory was developed by Frederic Bartlett, who suggested that memory is not a passive process like recording a video; instead, it's reconstructive. We interpret and organize memories based on schemas, and sometimes, we fill in gaps in memory with information that fits our expectations.
Bartlett’s research: Bartlett conducted studies to investigate how people remember stories, especially when the stories were culturally unfamiliar. He found that participants tended to distort the stories to align with their own cultural schemas. The stories were often shortened, details were added, and elements were changed to fit the participants' cultural expectations. This highlighted how memory is shaped by prior knowledge and expectations.
Schema Theory and Memory Stages
Schema theory helps explain how memory works through three main stages:
Encoding: The process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory.
Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded information, which may be consolidated (made stable) or lost over time.
Retrieval: Using the stored information in thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Schemas influence each stage of memory:
At encoding, schemas determine how we interpret and organize new information.
At storage, schemas help categorize and simplify information, making it easier to retrieve.
At retrieval, schemas shape the way we recall information, potentially leading to distortions if we fit new information into pre-existing mental frameworks.
Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968):
Stores:
Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory input.
Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (7±2 items), short duration (18 seconds), requires rehearsal for transfer to LTM.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity and duration, stores information for extended periods.
Processes:
Encoding: Sensory information is encoded into STM.
Rehearsal: Repeating info in STM to transfer it to LTM.
Retrieval: Accessing stored info from LTM.
Research Support:
Milner's HM case: Support for separate STM and LTM.
Glanzer & Cunitz (1966): Primacy & Recency effects show separate stores for STM and LTM.
Strengths of MSM:
Supports existence of multiple memory stores.
Historical importance in memory research.
Limitations of MSM:
Over-simplified; STM is not just a "gateway" to LTM.
Does not explain memory distortion or why some info is learned without rehearsal.
Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974):
Overview: Developed as an improvement over the Multi-store Model, suggesting STM is not a single store, but consists of different stores for different types of information.
Key Components:
Central Executive:
The control system that manages attention and coordinates the sub-systems.
Can divide and switch attention between tasks.
Limited capacity and modality-free.
Phonological Loop:
Deals with auditory information.
Composed of:
Articulatory Control System (Inner Voice): Holds verbal information for rehearsal.
Phonological Store (Inner Ear): Holds auditory memory traces for about 1.5-2 seconds if not rehearsed.
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: Deals with visual and spatial information (added later).
Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from other systems and LTM (added later).
Dual-Task Technique:
Participants perform two tasks: one auditory and one visual, showing that different systems process these types of information separately.
Strengths of Working Memory Model:
More comprehensive than the Multi-store Model.
Supported by experimental research (e.g., Landry & Bartling).
Limitations:
While the model adds more complexity, it's still hypothetical, and not all components are fully understood.
The model is focused primarily on verbal and visual information processing, leaving out other types of memory processes.
Reliability of Cognitive Processes
Introduction
When we discuss the reliability of a cognitive process, we want to know how consistent the information is over time.
Memory can be influenced at the encoding stage.
Researchers have demonstrated that memory may not be as reliable as we think.
Reliability and decision-making
When discussing thinking and decision-making, it is difficult to really talk about "reliability."
Instead, we could talk about how effectively we can make decisions.
Fiske and Taylor argue that we are "cognitive misers." We take shortcuts because thinking takes a lot of energy. Often we choose to take the less difficult road because we don't have the energy or resources to make a more complex, informed decision.
In addition, as with memory, we are influenced by social and cultural factors. We also have biases that influence our decision-making.
Reconstructive memory
In 2002, Loftus wrote an article on the case of a Washington DC sniper who killed a number of people. The police asked people to come forward with information on the murderer and many reported having seen a white van in the vicinity of the shootings.
In fact, the sniper’s van was a blue Chevrolet Caprice.
Loftus tried to find out where the myth of the white van came from.
She discovered that a bystander had mentioned a white van in an interview.
After this, other people reported that they had seen a white van.
Loftus supports Bartlett’s idea of memory as reconstructive.
Loftus claims that the nature of questions asked by police or in a courtroom can influence witnesses’ memory.
Leading questions, questions that are suggestive - and post-event information facilitate schema processing, which may influence the accuracy of recall.
This is called the misinformation effect.
Counterargument: Memory is reliable
In response to Loftus's research, Yuille and Cutshall (1986) carried out an experiment where they examined whether leading questions would affect the memory of eyewitnesses at a real crime scene.
The crime scene was in Vancouver.
A thief entered a gun shop and tied up the owner before stealing money and guns from the shop. The owner freed himself, and thinking that the thief had escaped, went outside the shop. But the thief was still there and shot him twice.
Police had been called and there was gunfire - and the thief was eventually killed. As the incident took place in front of the shop, there were eyewitnesses - 21 were interviewed by the police.
The researchers contacted the eyewitnesses four months after the event. They gave their account of the incident, and then they were asked questions. Two leading questions were used. They were also asked to rate their stress on a seven-point scale.
Results
It was found that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable.
They recalled a large amount of accurate detail that could be confirmed by the original police reports.
They also did not make errors because of the leading questions, and those who were most distressed by the situation had the most accurate memories.
First, Yuille & Cutshall's study had stronger ecological validity in comparison to Loftus & Palmer's laboratory study.
Because they had actually witnessed a crime, they would have had an emotional response different from what the students felt watching videos of drivers' education car crashes.
In addition, there was archival evidence (police records of the original testimonies) to confirm the accuracy of the testimonies.
Emotion and memory
The key appears to be that we remember better those experiences that involve emotions.
Emotions are rich and diverse, and they are often what make the experience something special.
Research seems to show that emotions play a key role in how memory is formed.
But as you will also see, it may not be that emotional memories are special, it is just that we think that they are.
And that feeling that our memories are "special" may lead us to believe that they are more accurate than they actually are.
Flashbulb memory theory
The theory of Flashbulb memory was first proposed by Brown & Kulik (1977).
Flashbulb memory: highly detailed, exceptionally vivid "snapshot" of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened.
They postulated the special-mechanism hypothesis, which argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism that, when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise, creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances of the experience.
This implies that flashbulb memories have different characteristics than "ordinary memories." They also argued that these memories are resistant to forgetting.
Brown and Kulik suggested that there may be a special neural mechanism that triggers emotional arousal because the event is unexpected or extremely important. It was only a hypothesis, but it is supported by modern neuroscience: emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events—perhaps because of the critical role of the amygdala.
Today, the most commonly accepted model of flashbulb memory is called the importance-driven model.
This model emphasizes that personal consequences determine the intensity of emotional reactions.
Biological support for flashbulb memory
The original theory by Brown & Kulik was rather vague about the "biological mechanism" that plays a role.
More recent research has found that the amygdala, a small structure in the temporal lobe, appears to be critical in the brain’s emotional circuit - and it is believed to play a critical role in emotional memories.
It makes sense that our brains would make sure to store information about fearful experiences in good detail.
When we are stressed, afraid, or surprised, we get a rush of adrenaline.
In evolutionary terms, the brain's ability to remember fear has most likely played a key role in our survival.
Research by Cahill and McGaugh found that not only did participants remember the details when they had an emotional response to a story, but they remembered less when they had an emotional response, but adrenaline levels were artificially suppressed.
Evaluation of Flashbulb Memory Theory
Strengths
There is biological evidence that supports the role of emotion in memory formation - for example, McGaugh & Cahill (1995) and Sharot (2007).
The theory challenged our understanding of memory and led to findings that different types of memory are processed in different parts of the brain.
Limitations
Neisser argues that it is one's level of confidence, not accuracy, which defines FBM.
Several constructs in the study of FBM are problematic - level of personal relevance, level of surprise, amount of overt rehearsal
There are cultural differences that indicate that rehearsal may play the most important role in the development of FBM.
Often with real-life research on the topic, it is impossible to verify the accuracy of memories.
It is not possible to measure one's emotional state at the time of an event - thus making it impossible to demonstrate a clear causal explanation.
Biases in thinking and decision-making
Although System 1 thinking is an efficient way to process the information we receive from the world around us it is also prone to errors because it depends on assumptions about the world that are sensible but which do not always match the complexities of the real world which are difficult to predict.
These assumptions are often referred to as heuristics – a ‘mental shortcut’; it is usually a simple rule that is applied with little or no thought and quickly generates a ‘probable’ answer.
Demonstrating the existence of heuristics is a good way to provide empirical support for a distinct intuitive, fast, and effortless system 1 mode of thinking.
Understanding common errors in the way people think about the world can be useful as it helps us to anticipate poor decision-making and take steps to improve it.
Heuristics can result in patterns of thinking and decision-making that are consistent, but inaccurate.
These patterns of thought are usually described as cognitive biases.
Anchoring bias
Anchoring Bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions.
During decision-making, anchoring occurs when individuals use an initial piece of information to make subsequent judgments.
Englich and Mussweiler (2001) found that anchoring bias could play a significant role in determining sentencing in courtrooms.
Framing effect
Prospect theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979) describes the way people choose between alternatives that involve risk, where the probabilities of outcomes are known.
The theory states that people evaluate these losses and gains using heuristics.
One of those heuristics is the framing effect, in which people react to choices depending on how they are presented or "framed."
People prefer certain outcomes when information is framed in positive language, but prefer less certain outcomes when the same information is framed in negative language.
In simple terms, when we expect success we prefer a definite win rather than a possible win, but when things look bad we will gamble on an uncertain defeat rather than a definite loss.
Critical thinking about cognitive biases
We often use System 1 thinking which does not spend the time to examine carefully what our options are in order to make "informed choices."
But it is difficult to measure the actual use of such biases in real-life situations.
We are not very good at explaining our thinking processes.
Since heuristics are often used unconsciously, our explanation as to how we decided what was the best price to pay is most likely a rationalization, rather than a true reflection of our thinking processes.
Limitations of research
Much of the research is done with Western university student samples under highly controlled - and rather artificial - conditions.
Many of the questions given to the students would be of little interest to them and were not asked in a way that was natural.
The studies lack ecological validity as well as cross-cultural support - assuming that cognitive biases are universal.
Emotion and decision-making
The Dual Processing Model of thinking and decision-making suggests that we have two distinct modes of thinking:
an intuitive, fast mode of thinking (System 1)
a slower, conscious, and rational mode of thinking (System 2).
However, this model does not directly address the role of emotion in thinking and decision-making.
Emotion is an important factor in decision-making, although most models do not address exactly how and why emotion might influence the way we think and the decisions we make.
Many researchers believe that an increase in emotion will increase our dependence on System 1 as cognitive load is increased, making cognitive processing by System 2 difficult.
The Somatic Marker Hypothesis (Damasio, 1994)
Damasio's Somatic Marker Hypothesis argues that emotional processes guide decision-making.
The vmPFC seems to be involved in somatic markers of emotions associated with thoughts and memories.
Somatic markers are feelings in the body that are associated with emotions, such as the association of a rapid heartbeat with anxiety or nausea with disgust.
Damasio wondered what would happen if this layer of information was removed when we try to decide what to do in a difficult situation.
Cognitive Processing in the Digital World
Introduction
According to the UK's Office of Communications (2015), young people between the ages of 16 and 24 spend more than 27 hours a week on the Internet.
The average adult spends more than 20 hours online a week, which includes time spent on the Internet at work.The question psychologists want to answer is - is this good for us?
Fundamental problem:
Most of the research on the effects of technology has not been replicated.
The question of how we can effectively investigate the effect of technology on our cognition is a complicated one.
And as you can probably guess, there is a lot of researcher bias on both sides of the aisle.
Survey research
Much research into the way we are affected by the digital world has been conducted using survey data, often collected online.
This method has several benefits, most notably the absence of any significant ethical concerns as participants are often fully informed or are at least provided with a full debrief and the right to withdraw their data if they are unhappy when the study is completed.
However, research conducted with surveys consistently raises concerns in terms of both internal and external validity.
One limitation is the social desirability effect.
Even when survey data is collected anonymously it remains true that many participants will be reluctant to provide any information about themselves which could be negatively judged.
Another limitation is sampling bias.
Surveys are often sent out or made available to very large numbers of people on the assumption that only some of them will choose to respond.
This is very sensible from a practical point of view, (especially if surveys can be distributed without cost by electronic means) but it can reduce the population validity of the research.
We might consider why some people would take part in a survey about social media while other people choose not to do so.
In either case, this may make it difficult to generalize results to a wider population.
Memory in the digital world
In 2008, Nicholas Carr wrote an article for the magazine “The Atlantic” which asked a provocative question: Is Google making us stupid?
As computers have become not just a significant part of our social life, but also our day at school, the use of technology has raised many questions.
There has been a lot of anecdotal evidence where people claim that computers either help or hinder their learning, but up until now, there is no definitive answer to Carr’s question.
The belief that people are using the Internet as a personal memory bank is referred to as the Google effect. The question is, does it really exist?
Percentage of recall
Participants were much more likely to remember the name of the folder (i.e. where the information could be found) than the information itself.
The highest rate of recall was for the name of the folder when the information itself was forgotten, suggesting that participants were prioritizing their memory of where information could be found, exactly as expected if we are using the Internet as an external store in a transactive memory system.
This research suggests that the Internet is increasingly occupying an important role in human memory, acting as an external store in a transactive memory system.
Furthermore, our confidence in this external store appears to discourage us from investing effort in encoding and/or retrieval of potentially important information in our individual long-term memory stores.
As long as the Internet remains operational, we might feel confident that we can continue to rely on what is after all a colossal external memory store.
However, evidence from Storm et al, (2016) suggests that our confidence in the internet leads to diminishing effort in remembering things for ourselves; the more we use Google, the less we seek to remember.
Both Sparrow et al and Storm designed experiments that clearly manipulate one or more independent variables and demonstrate a clear relationship between the IV and the DV.
Both experiments, however, rely on trivia information.
These studies raise important questions about the way in which the Internet is changing the way we learn and commit information to memory.
However, the research in this field is relatively new and needs to be rigorously tested for reliability.
At this point, it is not advisable to draw any definitive conclusions; doing so may open you up to confirmation bias - that is, using insufficient evidence to confirm what you already may believe to be true, while not seeking out information that may challenge what you believe.
Storm et al (2016)
Storm et al (2016) aimed to study that successful use of Google to retrieve information made it more likely that participants would rely on Google in the future rather than recalling information from their individual memory store.
They were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: Internet, memory, or baseline.
In the first phase of the procedure, participants in the Internet condition were told to use Google Search to answer a series of eight difficult general knowledge questions.
Participants in the ‘memory’ condition were asked to answer the same questions, but relying entirely on their own memory to do so.
Participants in the baseline condition were not asked any questions.
In the second phase, all participants were asked to answer eight easy general questions as fast as possible.
All participants were given access to Google Search but without any explicit instruction to use it.
The dependent variable was the proportion of questions for which participants chose to use Google Search in the second phase of the procedure.
The results clearly suggested that using Internet search engines to retrieve information makes us more likely to do so, (and therefore less likely to use our own memory) in future information recall tasks.
Psychology terminology
Self-concept and self-esteem are clearly linked, but they are not the same thing.
In simple terms, the difference can be thought of as follows:
Self-concept refers to our view of who we are.
Baumeister (1999) defines self-concept as the individual's belief about oneself, including the person's attributes and who and what the self is.
Self-concept includes how we perceive our own personality, what we are good at, and what we like to do.
There is no element of ‘judgmentt’ in self-concept, it is simply our view of who we are rather than an emotional feeling about who we are.
Self-esteem refers to our emotional response to our self-concept. Self-esteem is a person's overall subjective evaluation of his or her own worth.
Social Comparison Theory
Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) postulates that there is a drive within individuals to have accurate self-evaluations.
We determine our own social and personal worth based on how we compare to others.
People compare their experiences to that of those around them as a way to work out what kind of person they are (self-concept) and how they should judge themselves (self-esteem).
We might compare our feelings, experiences, abilities, and situations with those of our friends as a way to judge our own value and place in the world.
Many social media networks provide an increased opportunity for social comparison as they allow users to maintain a very clear idea of ‘what everyone else is doing’ (for example, through status updates) and compare this to their own daily routine.
Although we all engage in this kind of social comparison to some extent, it seems clear that some people are more interested in doing so and may be more influenced by any negative comparison.
These individuals may be more vulnerable to a negative cognitive bias - a tendency to compare themselves negatively to others, thereby reducing their self-esteem and potentially impacting their mood.
This risk of negative comparison may be further intensified due to the likelihood that comparisons based on information from social media are upward comparisons – comparisons where we deem the experience, behavior, and characteristics of others to be preferable to or better than our own.
This is because most people present a ‘best-case scenario’ of themselves online.
People are strongly motivated to post a status update describing something they are doing with friends which seems exciting and enjoyable rather than an update stating that they are currently not doing much and feeling a bit bored on their own!
Flashbulb memories
Although Brown and Kulik (1977) argued that surprise was the key to flashbulb memories, modern adaptations of the theory recognize that the theory is much more complex than they proposed.
Our prior knowledge and experience play a key role in what will actually be a flashbulb memory.
This helps us to determine whether an event is important to us - and it will also determine the level of surprise or emotion in our reaction to the news.
If the event is important, we will discuss this with others or ruminate (think a lot about) this event, thereby engaging in overt rehearsal. It is the combination of these variables that may lead to a flashbulb memory.
The question is whether "reception context" should also be considered a variable in this model.
Reception context
How we hear the news, known as the reception context, may make a difference in how we recall the news.
A study by Schaefer et al (2011) wanted to see if there was a difference in memories of the 9/11 terrorist attacks depending on whether people heard the information on television or from another person.
Obviously, when we first hear news from another person, visual images are absent.
The researchers wanted to know just how important these visual images are in the creation of flashbulb memories.
Method
They were asked to do a free recall of when they heard the news about the terrorist attack both 28 hours after the event and then again six months later.
They were not told at the time of the first recall task that they would be tested again six months later.
The participants were divided into two groups: immediate and delayed viewing of television coverage of the event.
Those in the immediate group (n = 27) saw the event live on television or turned on television within minutes of hearing the news.
Those in the delay condition (n = 11) saw the event on television hours after being informed.
The responses were coded by two independent research assistants who were blind to the hypotheses.
The quantity of information provided in the initial and follow-up reports, based on the number of canonical categories and word length, did not differ with regard to reception context.
However, the delayed viewing of images resulted in less elaborate and less consistent accounts over the 6-month interval.
Sociocultural Approach to Understanding Behaviour
1.1 Social Identity Theory
Tajfel and Turner’s Social Identity Theory (SIT)
Proposed in 1979, SIT explains that individuals derive their self-identity from the groups they belong to.
Individuals are part of multiple groups (e.g., family, school, workplace, sports teams), and their behavior influences one another within these groups.
Ingroups and Outgroups
When individuals identify more strongly with one group over another similar group, their chosen group becomes their ingroup, while the other group becomes their outgroup.
Defining Ingroups and Outgroups
Ingroups and outgroups are defined through comparisons and contrasts, as highlighted by Yuki (2003).
SIT's Three Assumptions:
Social Categorization: People naturally categorize themselves and others into social groups.
Social Identification: Individuals identify with certain social groups and adopt their norms and values.
Social Comparison: People compare their ingroup with outgroups, leading to a sense of "us versus them" dynamics.
Social Categorization
Categorization for Identification: People categorize other people to help identify and start understanding them. This process helps individuals better understand themselves and form a sense of self identity.
Group Norms Influence Behavior: People who often perceive behavior as 'right' based on the norms of their respective groups. These norms guide their actions and judgments.
Belonging to Multiple Groups: Individuals typically belong to numerous groups simultaneously. Depending on the specific group they are interacting with, their behavior may change to align with that group's norms and values.
Ingroup bias
Biased Outgroup Evaluations and Self-Esteem
Need for positive self-perception leads to biased evaluations of outgroups.
Discriminating against outgroups can boost self-esteem (Lemyre and Smith, 1985).
Struch and Schwartz (1989) Study
Conflict between religious groups in Israel attributed to outgroup aggression.
Strongest perception of aggression among those most identified with their ingroup.
Brown et al. (2001) Study
Conflict between UK-France ferry passengers (ingroup) and French fishermen (outgroup).
Blockade by French fishermen caused negative attitudes towards French people.
Stronger negative attitude among those most strongly identified with English nationality.
Nationality as Predictor
Identification with nationality consistently predicts negative attitudes towards other nationalities.
Ingroup Identification's Impact
Strength of ingroup identification strongly predicts intergroup attitudes.
Responses to intergroup inequality
Social Identity Theory (SIT) and Collective Protest
SIT predicts collective protest based on individuals' level of identification with their ingroups.
Examples: Participation in trade union, gay, and elderly people's protests linked to strong ingroup identification (Kelly and Breinlinger, 1995).
Wright et al.'s (1990) Study
Unjust deprivation of a group, offered individuals the option to leave.
Found that collective protest only happened when individuals felt they couldn't leave their group.
Concluded that even if a few from the deprived group could join a more privileged group, collective protest was unlikely to occur.
Stereotyping
SIT Influence on Stereotyping and Group Perception
SIT (Social Identity Theory) impacts how psychologists view stereotyping and ingroup/outgroup perception.
Stereotypes as Unreliable Decision-Making Tools
Stereotypes may not be dependable mental tools for making decisions.
Categorization and Similarity in Stereotyping
Categorization process in stereotyping suggests outgroup members are seen as more similar to each other than to members of other groups.
Group Homogeneity and Social Identity Processes
SIT indicates that perceptions of group homogeneity (both for ingroups and outgroups) are linked to social identity processes.
Stereotypes Not Just Cognitive Tools
Stereotypes can't be simply seen as cognitive tools for simplifying thinking. They're influenced by complex social identity processes.
Limitations of SIT
IT and Positive Social Identity
SIT assumes positive social identity arises from favorable intergroup comparisons.
Modest support found for the correlation between group identification strength and positive ingroup bias (Yuki, 2003).
SIT and Ingroup Bias
SIT posits that ingroup bias is driven by the desire for positive self-perception.
Causal link between intergroup differentiation and self-esteem not supported by Yuki (2003).
SIT and Intergroup Differences
SIT suggests that groups should be motivated to demonstrate differences from similar groups.
Yuki (2003) did not find support for this hypothesis.
Cultural Considerations
SIT was primarily developed in Western contexts.
Yuki (2003) indicates it may be less reliable in non-Western communities.
Yuki (2003) Study: US vs. Japanese Contexts
Greater loyalty and identification with ingroups among American participants compared to Japanese participants.
Discrimination against outgroups more pronounced in individualistic cultures.
No evidence supporting ingroup favoritism.
Stewart et al. (1998) Study: Chinese vs. British Students in Hong Kong
Chinese students in Hong Kong perceived intergroup differentiation as less important than British students did.
British students placed more importance on group membership and had more positive group images.
Results suggest weaker differentiation among Chinese students, but this study focused on students and may not generalize to wider populations.
1.2 Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
Learning theory explaining how people acquire new behaviors.
Acquisition of Behavior
SCT posits behavior is learned through observation or imitation of others.
Learners observe consequences (rewards or punishments) of behavior, which influences their own actions.
Models for Learning
Models can be real individuals (e.g., family members, teachers, athletes) or fictional characters (e.g., from movies or TV).
Influences on Behavior Reproduction (Bandura et al., 1961)
Personal Factors:Low or high self-efficacy (belief in one's ability to succeed) influences behavior reproduction.
Behavioral Factors: Reward or lack thereof after correct performance affects likelihood of behavior replication.
Environmental Factors: External factors (barriers or supports) impacting ability to reproduce behavior.
Social Cognitive Theory and Self Efficacy
Self-Efficacy
Refers to a person's belief in their likelihood of success.
Relation to Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
In SCT, if learners doubt their ability to succeed, they are less likely to attempt to replicate a model's behavior.
White et al. (2012) Study on Physical Activity
Tested SCT's impact on physical activity in middle-aged and older adults.
Found that higher self-efficacy levels led to greater physical activity participation and fewer disability limitations.
Application to Smoking Cessation
SCT applied in health psychology to help smokers quit by increasing self-efficacy.
Role-playing, imagination, and exposure to successful quitters were used.
Effective in aiding smoking cessation.
Stajkovic and Luthans (1979) on Workplace Self-Efficacy
Employees must believe they have the necessary resources to perform a task.
Without this belief, they may focus on difficult aspects and exert insufficient effort.
Ahmed and Sands (2009) Study on Breastfeeding
Tested the influence of a SCT-based breastfeeding education program on preterm infants' mothers.
Program included role models, weekly check-ups, and self-report checklists.
Mothers in the program showed significant improvement in breastfeeding, fewer issues, and were more likely to exclusively breastfeed.
Social cognitive theory and aggression
Bandura et al. (1961) - Bobo Doll Study
Aim: To understand the factors influencing when and why children display aggressive behaviors.
Participants: 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls) aged 3-6, enrolled in Stanford University's day-care program.
Procedure:
Children observed adults displaying either aggressive or non-aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll.
Children were then taken to another room with toys for about two minutes.
Researchers recorded their behavior during playtime.
Findings:
Children exposed to aggressive adult models exhibited aggression during playtime.
Boys imitated male models more for physical aggression, while girls imitated their gender-matched model more for verbal aggression.
Conclusion:
Children can learn behavior through observation.
Boys tend to imitate male models more, while girls imitate female models more. Females are generally less physically aggressive.
Evaluation:
Controlled laboratory setting ensured standardized conditions.
Participants were gender-balanced but from a relatively homogeneous socio-economic background.
Dependent variable (acts of aggression) was subjectively measured without considering intensity.
Generalizability may be limited, further research needed, especially on older age groups.
1.3 Stereotypes
Theories of Stereotype Development
Harding et al. (1969): Stereotypes are the cognitive component of attitudes towards others or groups.
Allport (1954): Stereotypes serve a functional purpose, allowing rationalization of prejudice.
Tajfel (1981): Prejudice is an inevitable consequence of categorization processes in stereotype formation.
Heuristic Application of Stereotypes
Stereotypes are often used as a simple decision-making tool, which may not lead to accurate conclusions.
Gilbert (1951) Follow-Up Study
Found that stereotypes still existed but consensus was lower.
Devine and Elliott (1995) modified an attribute list, suggesting that older lists may be outdated.
Weakness of Self-Report Questionnaires
Participants may not always provide accurate responses.
Persistence of Stereotypes:
Due to factors like correspondence bias, illusory correlation, upbringing, and ingroup/outgroup dynamics, stereotypes tend to persist once formed.
Correspondence Bias and Stereotype Formation
Correspondence bias over-attributes behavior to personality and under-attributes it to situational factors.
Nier and Gaertner (2012) Study
Found that those displaying correspondence bias tend to stereotype high-status groups as competent and low-status groups as incompetent.
Participants with high correspondence bias scores stereotyped poor individuals, women, and a fictitious low-status Pacific Islander group as incompetent.
The same participants stereotyped rich individuals, men, and a fictitious high-status Pacific Islander group as competent.
After accounting for other variables, correspondence bias was the most significant predictor of stereotyping.
Illusory Correlation and Stereotype Formation
Distinctiveness and Attention
Unusual events are more noticeable and therefore more effectively encoded, creating the perception of association.
Intergroup Context
Illusory correlations contribute to the incorrect attribution of uncommon behaviors to minority or outgroups.
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) Study
Tested illusory correlation's role in stereotype formation.
Found illusory correlation is stronger when infrequent, distinctive information is negative.
McConnell et al. (1994) Study
Discovered that stereotypes are formed based on information considered distinctive at the time of judgment, not necessarily when first encountered.
Supports Bartlett's concept of "effort after meaning," where information is re-encoded as distinctive when later perceived as such, even if it wasn't initially.
Upbringing and Stereotype Formation
Stereotypes can be influenced by a person's upbringing.
Early exposure to stereotypes from parents, teachers, friends, and media can contribute.
Bar-Tal (1996) Study
Investigated the role of upbringing in the formation of stereotypes about Arabs in Jewish children in Israel.
214 children (102 boys, 112 girls) aged 2-6 were shown a photo of an Arab man wearing traditional attire and asked to rate him on four traits (good/bad, dirty/clean, handsome/ugly, weak/strong).
Results showed that almost all the children had already developed a negative stereotype of Arabs.
Conclusion of the Study
Children acquire or develop stereotypes from their environmental experiences, including influences from parents, media, peers, and teachers, as well as direct contact with outgroup members.
Ingroup and Outgroup Relations and Stereotype Formation
stereotypes form due to a desire to emphasize similarities within the ingroup and differences from outgroups.
Stereotypes are a consequence, not a cause, of intergroup relationships.
Overcoming Intergroup Problems and Stereotypes:
Research shows that merging groups and initiating contact and communication between members can resolve intergroup issues.
Similarly, stereotypes can be overcome through similar strategies.
Stereotype Threat
Stereotype Threat:
Occurs when people are aware of a negative stereotype associated with them, leading to anxiety about confirming it.
Debate on Stereotype Threat:
Not universally accepted, subject to publication bias criticism.
Publication Bias:
Suggests research on stereotype threat may be favored for publication due to its intriguing findings.
Steele (1988) Study:
Demonstrated stereotype threat's negative impact on standardized test performance.
African American students performed worse when the task was framed as an intelligence test, but better when it wasn't.
Replicability in Research:
Essential for establishing the credibility of a psychological phenomenon.
Empirical Evidence and Replication:
A widely accepted theory should have strong empirical support through replicated studies.
Some studies, after accounting for publication bias, suggest limited significant effects of stereotype threat (Flore and Wicherts, 2014).
Zigerell's (2017) Meta-Analysis:
Concluded that the evidence for stereotype threat was inconclusive.
1.4 Culture and Its Influence on Behaviour
Culture Defined
Culture encompasses shared beliefs, norms, conventions, attitudes, behaviors, and symbols of a group.
It is learned through instruction and observation, passed down through generations.
Evolution of Psychology's View on Behavior
Initially, behavior was attributed primarily to biology (physiology, genes, hormones).
More recently, culture's role in behavior and cognition gained prominence.
Culture's Influence on Self-Perception and Cognition
Culture impacts individuals' perceptions of themselves, which in turn affects cognitive processes.
Cultural Influence on Cognitive Processes
Derry (1996) argued for a degree of "cultural-boundness" in cognitive processes like memory, language, and thinking.
Bartlett's (1932) Study on Language and Memory
Demonstrated how British-English language influenced participants' recall of the Native American story "The War of the Ghosts".
Language's Role in Interpretation
A cultural group's language shapes how they interpret, classify, and structure their perception of external reality.
Impact on Empirical Observation
Beliefs and values can influence empirical observations, affecting interpretations of phenomena like illness, weather events, earthquakes, and non-verbal cues like facial expressions, body language, and hand gestures.
Culture and Its Influence on Behaviour
Study: Wong and Hong (2005)
Investigated the role of culture in behavior through cultural priming of Chinese-American participants.
Priming with Chinese icons (dragon) led to higher cooperation with friends and lower cooperation with strangers.
Priming with American icons (Mickey Mouse) showed opposite effects.
Concluded that a person's culture affects interpersonal decision making.
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Theory: People tend to overstate dispositional factors in their successes and understate situational factors.
Dispositional factors: Related to the individual, e.g., personality traits.
Situational factors: External to the individual, e.g., weather, other people's behavior.
FAE less powerful in some cultures like Russian and Indian.
Social Class and Behaviour
Russian cultures.
Found positive correlation between lower social class, holistic cognition, and interdependent self-views in both USA and Russia.
Lower social class individuals in both cultures demonstrated:
Less dispositional bias (attributed fewer outcomes to themselves).
More contextual attention and non-linear reasoning about change.
More interdependent self-views (less self-inflation).
Russians, considered less class-distinct, also showed similar patterns.
Cultural Influence on the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) in India
In the Indian context, FAE is altered.
Dispositional factors tend to be more interpersonal than purely personal.
Example: Indian individuals tend to underestimate situational factors like weather in their successes and overstate factors like the influence of friends, family, and their own dispositional traits (Markus and Kitayama, 1991).
Counting and Arithmetic
Saxe (2015)
Demonstrated cultural influence on counting and arithmetic.
Example: Oksapmin people in Papua New Guinea use a 27-body-part counting system, different from Western finger-based counting.
Reed and Lave (1979)
Aim: Investigate cultural impact on counting and arithmetic.
Procedure:
Participant observation and interviews with Vai and Gola tailors in Liberia.
Tasks to understand arithmetic skills.
Findings:
Tailors' methods differed based on cultural learning experiences.
Vai/Gola tailors used counters or marks for counting.
Western-educated tailors used school-taught strategies.
Conclusion:
Vai/Gola tailors had a distinct arithmetic system.
Schooling influenced a different approach.
Evaluation:
High ecological validity due to real-world context.
Observations and interviews supported findings.
Beller and Bender (2008)
Used Melanesian and Polynesian cultures to highlight unique arithmetic skills for trade.
Surface Culture vs. Deep Culture
Surface Culture: Obvious or easily noticeable differences between a person's native and host countries, e.g., language, gestures, diet, clothing, and interpersonal behavior.
Deep Culture: Profound cultural norms that are less obvious and accessible to newcomers, e.g., social hierarchies, interpretations of dignity and respect, religion, and humor.
Acculturation and Cultural Retention (Betancourt and Lopez, 1993)
Individuals with low acculturation to a dominant culture are more likely to retain the values of their indigenous community.
They may be less inclined to conform to the norms of the new culture.
Cultural Dimensions
Study: Schwartz (1992)
Aim: Determine the existence of a universal set of cultural dimensions or values.
Procedure:
Survey with 25,863 participants from 44 countries (including teachers and adolescents).
Participants rated 56 values on a 9-point scale based on importance as guiding principles in their lives.
Identified Cultural Dimensions or Values:
Power (social status, control/dominance)
Achievement (personal success)
Hedonism (pleasure and gratification)
Stimulation (excitement, novelty, challenge)
Self-direction (independent thinking, self-determinism, free will)
Universalism (appreciating, tolerating, protecting all people and nature)
Benevolence (protecting and enhancing welfare of close contacts)
Tradition (respect, commitment, acceptance of one's traditions)
Conformity (restraining oneself to not harm or offend others)
Security (safety, stability in self, society, relationships)
Findings:
Different cultural dimensions in Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Far East, USA/Canada, and Islamic-influenced countries.
No universal set of cultural dimensions, but wide acceptance of the ten identified values.
Conclusion:
No universal set of cultural dimensions, but ten widely accepted values.
Evaluation:
Large sample from 44 countries, but mainly from modern, well-educated countries.
Reliance on self-report questionnaires may introduce response biases.
Chinese Cultural Values
Yau (1988)
Investigated the enduring values in Chinese culture influenced by Confucianism, emphasizing interpersonal relationships and social orientations.
Dimensions of Chinese Culture (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961)
Man-to-Nature Orientation: Emphasis on harmony with nature, seeing humans as part of it.
Man-to-Himself Orientation: Values modesty and self-effacement, avoiding self-praise.
Relational Orientation: Stresses interdependence, group orientation, face, and respect for authority.
Time Orientation: Focus on continuity and past/historical orientation.
Personal-Activity Orientation: Values harmony with others, emphasizes living properly.
Classical value system was disrupted during the Cultural Revolution, but values persist.
Additional Insights
Man-to-Nature Orientation: Humans seen as part of nature, advocating adaptation and harmony.
Man-to-Himself Orientation: Involves humility and self-effacement, discouraging self-praise.
Family Traditions and Cultural History: Reflects a past-time orientation valued in Chinese culture.
Personal-Activity Orientation: Emphasizes proper living, which involves being polite and obeying social rules. Consideration for others is crucial.
Cultural Dimensions
Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions (1984):
Power Distance:
Definition: Acceptance of inequality as the norm, varying across cultures.
Inequality exists universally, but acceptance levels differ.
Individualism:
Individualist Societies: Emphasis on self, immediate family, and friends.
Collectivist Societies: Value extended family groups, difficulty separating from them.
Masculinity:
Definition: Expectation for men to be assertive, ambitious, and competitive. Respect for attributes like strength and speed.
Masculine Cultures: Expect women to care for those unable to care for themselves.
Feminine Cultures: Expect men and women to share ambitions and caregiving equally.
Uncertainty Avoidance:
Definition: Tolerance of uncertainty in a culture.
High Uncertainty Avoidance: Less tolerance for uncertainty, less accepting of personal risk.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance: More tolerant of uncertainty, active and emotional.
Enculturation
Process of acquiring a culture's norms and expectations.
Involves learning the unwritten rules and expected behavior within a group.
Methods of Enculturation
Parents, teachers, or supervisors provide explicit guidance on appropriate behavior.
Example: Parents teach children to speak quietly in restaurants.
Social Learning (Bandura et al., 1961)
Influence of social environment on individual learning.
Example: Providing objects for exploration, allowing individuals to discover behavior.
Observational Learning
Newcomers observe and imitate behavior by watching others.
Example: New students learning school norms by observing classmates.
Cultural Learning
New members try to understand situations from the perspective of existing group members.
Involves empathizing and imagining others' points of view.
Key Points
Enculturation occurs through direct instruction, social learning, observational learning, and cultural learning.
It enables individuals to internalize and adopt the norms and expectations of their culture.
Enculturation and Language Acquisition
Pinker (1994) suggests that children are aware from an early age that certain sounds in their environment carry meaning, distinguishing them from non-linguistic sounds.
Tomasello and Rakoczy (2003) propose that language understanding develops around age 1, while understanding of beliefs occurs later and at different ages across cultures. Participation in language-based communication is crucial for a child's development.
Ochs (1982) demonstrated that in Samoan culture, learning by observation is highly emphasized. The cognitive process of language acquisition in Samoan children is significantly influenced by their cultural context. Enculturation and language acquisition happen concurrently, with language being a crucial aspect of enculturation.
Acculturation
Process of adapting to a new culture, influencing attitudes, identity, and behavior.
Occurs in various situations (e.g., moving to a new country, changing workplaces, starting a new school, etc.).
Involves learning the accepted norms and behavior of the new group.
Social Identity Theory (SIT) - Tajfel and Turner (1979/1986) (as explained by Sam and Berry, 2010):
Explains how people define their identity within their original and new cultures, influencing their national identity.
Suggests that individuals tend to identify with their ingroup, but may seek to move out if they perceive the outgroup as more successful.
Acculturation Strategies and Adaptation (Berry et al., 2006):
Integration strategies (e.g., learning the host country's language, maintaining host culture friendships) lead to the best psychological and sociocultural adaptations.
Poor host country language skills and few host culture relationships lead to poor adaptation outcomes.
Ethnic-group strategies lead to good psychological adaptation but relatively poor sociocultural adaptation.
National-group strategies lead to relatively poor psychological adaptation and slightly negative sociocultural adaptation.
Quasi-Experiments
Study inherent participant variables (e.g., height, handedness, nationality) without experimenter allocation to different conditions.
Often used in cross-cultural research to examine the influence of culture on behavior.
Cross-Cultural Studies and Quasi-Experiments
Explore whether behaviors are culture-bound (unique to specific cultures) or cross-cultural (observed in all cultures).
Conducted outside laboratory conditions, making control of other variables challenging.
Yuki's (2003) Study
Aimed to investigate the applicability of Social Identity Theory (SIT) in US and Japanese contexts.
IV: Participants' culture (Japanese or American).
DV: Extent to which SIT applies in each context.
Used questionnaires to gather data on participants' attitudes toward groups and behavior within groups.
Findings
Greater loyalty and identification with ingroup among American participants compared to Japanese participants.
Evidence suggesting more pronounced discrimination against outgroups in individualistic cultures.
No evidence supporting the theory of ingroup favoritism.
Conclusion
Yuki (2003) suggested that SIT may not accurately represent group behaviors among East Asians, indicating it may not be a cross-cultural phenomenon.
Correlation Studies
Focus on determining if variables co-occur or are related, indicating a correlation.
Berry et al.'s (2006) Study
Examined the correlation between acculturation strategies and the success of adaptation and assimilation.
Found that strategies involving engagement with the host culture correlated with successful adaptation and assimilation.
Note: The study did not establish a cause-effect relationship; further experimental research is needed.
Self-Report Questionnaires
Simple, quick, and cost-effective method for data collection.
Relies on participants' honesty; potential for inaccurate responses due to social desirability bias.
Reliability depends on participants' comprehension of questions.
Berry et al. (2006) used self-report questionnaires to gather acculturation data, despite some participants lacking strong language proficiency.
Emic vs. Etic Approaches
Emic Approach
Conducted by an insider with first-hand experience in the culture.
In-depth understanding but may lack professional distance for objectivity.
Etic Approach
Conducted by an outsider, offering an external perspective.
Provides objectivity but may lack the depth of insider knowledge.
Examples of Studies
Ochs (1982) Study:
Etic approach studying the enculturation process of Samoan children's language acquisition.
Conducted by non-Samoan researchers living within the culture but from a different culture.
Howarth's (2002) Study:
Etic approach studying teenagers living in Brixton, conducted by an outsider.
Universalist vs. Relativist Approaches
Universalist Approach
Assumes shared psychological processes in all human cultures.
Applies universal criteria in research.
Relativist Approach
Assumes cultural groups have distinct psychological processes.
Belief criteria cannot be compared across cultures.
Yuki's (2003) Study
Employed both emic (Japanese participants) and etic (American participants) approaches to examine the cross-cultural applicability of social identity theory.
Ethical Considerations in Bandura et al.'s (1961) Study
No Harm Principle
Fundamental ethical rule is to do no harm.
Study exposed young children to aggressive behavior, potentially causing harm.
Informed Consent
Children, especially very young ones, cannot give informed consent due to limited comprehension.
No indication of attempts to address potential harm through debriefing or intervention.
Research Integrity
Ethical obligation to conduct research with integrity.
Study's conclusions applied to diverse groups without proper consideration, potentially leading to misuse of research.
Costs and Benefits
Some ethical systems weigh the costs and benefits of research to society.
The harm to a small number of children may be outweighed by the benefit to society through the findings' application in legislation.
Psychological Consequences of Globalization (Arnett, 2002)
Identity Confusion
Many young people experience identity confusion, not strongly identifying with either their local or global culture.
Extended Discovery Process
The process of discovering one's identity in work and relationships extends beyond adolescence into emerging adulthood (18-25 years old).
Acculturative Stress (Berry, 1997)
Describes the conflict between one's original culture and a new culture and its impact on personal identity.
Intensity of Stress and Identity Confusion
Acculturative stress is most pronounced when the values of the original culture clash with those of the global culture.
Higher acculturative stress correlates with greater identity confusion (Berry, 1997).
Bicultural and Hybrid Identities (Arnett, 2002)
Bicultural Identity
Adopting both a local identity and a distinct, separate global identity.
Hybrid Identity
Occurs when globalization blends a person's indigenous beliefs and values with aspects of the global culture, creating a unique hybrid identity.
Impact of Globalization
As globalization influences local cultures, individuals' identities may adapt to become bicultural or hybrid, allowing them to navigate both their indigenous and global cultural contexts (Arnett, 2002).
Impact on Identity and Culture (Arnett, 2002; Nsamenang, 2002; Delafosse et al., 1993)
Identity Confusion
Some individuals experience identity confusion due to disconnection from both their indigenous culture and an unwillingness or inability to engage with the global culture (Berry, 1997).
Effect on Young People
Globalization significantly impacts the identity formation of young people. Their understanding of the world is now influenced more by exposure to global culture through media like television, cinema, and the internet, rather than just their local environment (Arnett, 2002).
Culture Shedding
Indigenous cultures are affected by the global culture, leading to shifts in traditional norms. For example, cultures with traditionally paternalistic structures are becoming more egalitarian due to exposure to global influences (Nsamenang, 2002).
Social Problems and Identity Confusion:
Cultures with greater cultural distance from the global culture are more likely to experience identity confusion and social problems, especially among young people. Research in Côte d'Ivoire found an increase in issues like suicide, drug abuse, armed aggression, and prostitution, attributed to globalization (Delafosse et al., 1993).
Globalization's Impact on Transition to Adulthood (Arnett, 2000; Nsamenang, 2002)
Postponed Transition to Adulthood
Worldwide trend of young people delaying roles of work, marriage, and parenthood due to prolonged education, influenced by global culture (Arnett, 2000).
Factors Influencing Postponement
Postponed adulthood associated with self-exploration and socioeconomic circumstances allowing for delay. Well-off individuals or families can afford this delay (Arnett, 2000).
Unrealistic Expectations and Identity Stress
In some regions, young people's expectations shaped by global culture may not align with local opportunities. This can lead to identity stress, especially when university graduates struggle to find employment in their chosen field (Nsamenang, 2002).
Discrepancy in Developing Countries
Postponed adulthood is more accessible to the relatively affluent in developing countries. Poorer individuals often enter adult roles (work, marriage, and parenthood) at a younger age due to limited engagement with global culture (Nsamenang, 2002).
Research Methods for Studying Globalization's Impact (Ochs, 1982; Chen et al., 2008)
Longitudinal Study (Ochs, 1982)
Definition: Involves repeated observations of the same individuals and behavior over an extended period to show trends.
Usefulness for Globalization Research: Valuable for studying the long-term influence of globalization on behavior (e.g., language acquisition, identity formation).
Characteristics:
Observational, showing correlations but not cause-effect conclusions.
High ecological validity as conducted in participants' environment.
Can be expensive and time-consuming.
Cross-Cultural Study (Chen et al., 2008)
Definition: Typically a quasi-experiment using participants' culture as the independent variable (IV) and behavior as the dependent variable (DV).
Usefulness for Globalization Research: Examines impact of different cultural identities and bilingualism on psychological adjustment in diverse cultural groups.
Considerations:
People from the same nationality may not necessarily share the same culture, highlighting a potential fault in cross-cultural studies.
Approaches to Researching Behavior
Research Methodology
Quantitative
Variables that can not be assigned a number (such as a measure of stress or anxiety), need to be operationalized or quantified.
Construct – a theoretically identifiable variable
You must operationalize a construct in quantitative studies.
Operationalization - a process of defining the measurement of a phenomenon that is not directly measurable
Types of Quantitative Studies:
Experimental Studies
Includes one independent variable and a dependent variable, while the other potentially important variables are controlled. Finds a cause-and-effect relationship.
Correlational Studies
The researcher does not manipulate any variables (there are no IVs or DVs). Variables are measured and the relationship between them is quantified.
Descriptive Studies
Relationships between variables are not investigated, and the variables are approached separately. These studies are in the form of interviews or surveys and can be used to obtain an in-depth analysis of an area of interest.
Types of Variables
Independent Variable: The variable that the researcher manipulates to look for a change in the DV
Dependent variable: The variable that changes due to a change in the IV
Control variables: Variables that are kept constant throughout the experiment
Confounding variables: Variables apart from the IV, that may affect the DV
Sampling
Sample: The group of people taking part in the experiment
Target Population: The group of people to which the findings of the study are expected to be generalized
Types of sampling:
Random Sampling: Participants are chosen at random. Everyone has an equal chance of getting selected
Stratified Sampling: Participants are chosen based on the proportions of people in the target population
Convenience Sampling: People who are most easily available are chosen
Self-Selected Sampling: People who self-respond to an ad are chosen
Experimental Designs
Independent Measures Design: Involves random allocation of participants into groups and a comparison between these groups. Different participants go through different trials.
Matched Pairs Design
Similar to independent measures design.
Matching is used to form groups
Repeated Measure Design
Used when the goes is to compare conditions rather than groups of participants
The same group of participants is exposed to two or more conditions and then the conditions are compared
Threats to internal validity:
Selection
Occurs if for some reason groups are not equivalent at the start of the experiment.
We cannot be sure if the post-experiment differences between groups. reflect the influence of the IV.
History
Refers to outside events that happen to participants in the course of the experiment.
These become a problem if they can potentially influence the DV.
Maturation
In the course of the experiment, participants go through natural developmental processes, such as fatigue or simply growth
Testing Effect
The first measurement of the DV may affect the second (and subsequent) measurements
Instrumentation
Occurs when the instrument measuring the DV changes slightly between measurements
Regression to the mean
Regression toward the mean is the tendency for scores to average out
Experiment mortality
Refers to the fact that some participants drop out during an experiment
Demand characteristics
Refers to a situation in which participants understand the purpose of the experiment and change their behavior subconsciously to t that interpretation
Experimenter bias
This refers to situations in which the researcher unintentionally exerts an influence on the results of the study.
A double-blind experimental design can be used to combat this.
Types of experiments
True Lab Experiment
IV Manipulated by the researcher
Setting = Laboratory
We can infer causation from it
True Field Experiment
IV Manipulated by the researcher
Setting = Real-life
We can infer causation from it (confounding variables may be present)
Natural Experiment
IV Manipulated by nature
Setting = Real-life
We can’t infer causation from it
Quasi-experiment
IV Not manipulated; the pre-existing difference
Setting = Lab or real-life
We can’t infer causation from it
Triangulation
Method Triangulation: The use of different methods in combination to compensate for their limitations and reinforce their strengths
Data Triangulation: refers to using data from a variety of accessible sources
Researcher Triangulation: Refers to combining observations/interpretations of different researchers
Theory Triangulation: Refers to using multiple perspectives or theories to interpret the data
Rapport
Researchers should ensure that participants are honest
The researcher should remind participants about voluntary participation and the right to withdraw so that responses are only obtained from participants who are willing to contribute
It should be made clear to participants that there are no right or wrong answers and in general a good rapport should be established
Iterative questioning
Spotting ambiguous answers and returning to the topic later while at the same time rephrasing the question
Reflexivity
Researchers should reflect on the possibility that their own biases might have interfered with the observations or interpretations
Epistemological Reflexivity: Linked to knowledge of the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data
Personal Reflexivity: Linked to the personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher
Biases in qualitative research
Participant bias:
Acquiescence bias: the tendency to give positive answers whatever the question
Social desirability bias: The participants’ tendency to respond or behave in a way that they think will make them liked or accepted
Dominant respondent bias: Occurs in a group interview setting when one of the participants influences the behavior and responses of the others
Sensitivity bias: The tendency of participants to answer regular questions honestly, but distort their responses to questions on sensitive subjects
Researcher bias:
Confirmation bias: Occurs when the researcher has a prior belief and uses the research in an unintentional attempt to confirm that belief
Leading questions bias: Occurs when respondents in an interview are inclined to answer in a certain way because the wording of the question encourages them to do so
Question order bias: Occurs when responses to one question influence the participant’s responses to the following questions
Sampling bias: occurs when the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research
Biased reporting: occurs when some findings of the study are not equally represented in the research report
Types of Sampling
Quota sampling: It is decided before the start of research how many people to include in the sample and which characteristics they should have
Purposive sampling: Similar to quota sampling in the sense that the main characteristics of participants are defined in advance and then researchers recruit participants who have these characteristics
Theoretical sampling: This is a special type of purposive sampling that stops when the point of data saturation is reached
Snowball sampling: In this approach, a small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know who also are of interest to the research
Convenience sampling: You just use the sample that is easily available or accessible
Types of generalization
Sample to Population: Generalizations made from the sample in your study to the target population the sample is derived from
Theoretical: Generalization is made from particular observations to a broader theory
Case to case: Generalization is made to a different group of people or different setting or context
Qualitative research methods
Observation:
The focus of the research is on how people interact, interpret each other’s behavior, and act upon these interpretations in a natural setting
The researcher believes meaningful knowledge in the research area cannot be generated without observation.
Observation allows the researcher to become deeply immersed in the studied phenomenon
Types:
Naturalistic Observation: Observation carried out in naturalistic settings, i.e. in a place that has not been arranged for the study
Laboratory Observation: Observation carried out in a controlled environment that has been arranged for the study
Overt Observation
Occurs when participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed
Covert Observation
Occurs when participants are not aware of the fact that they are being observed
Participant Observation
Researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives
Structured Observation
In structured observation, information is recorded systematically and in a standardized way
Unstructured Observation
Unstructured observations do not have a pre-defined structure and observers simply register whatever behaviors they find noteworthy
Interview: This is the only way to get an insight into the nature of subjective experiences and interpretations.
Interviews may be used to understand the meanings participants attach to certain events and their points of view.
In-depth individual interviews are useful when the topic is too sensitive for people to discuss in a group setting
Types:
Structured Interviews
Includes a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a fixed order
Semi-Structured Interviews
Do not specify the order or a particular set of questions, instead, there is a checklist of sorts
Unstructured interview
Mostly participant-driven, and every next question is determined by the interviewee’s answer to the previous one
Focus group
Advantages
It is a quick way to get information from several participants simultaneously.
It creates a more natural and comfortable environment than face-to-face, ensuring less participant bias.
It is easier to respond to sensitive questions when you are in a group
Multiple perspectives are discussed so a more holistic understanding of the topic is achieved
Limitations
If one of the participants is especially dominant, this may distort the other participants' responses.
It is more difficult to preserve anonymity and confidentiality.
Focus groups are especially demanding in terms of sampling and creating interview transcripts.
Ethical Considerations
Informed consent
Participation in a study must be voluntary. Participants must fully understand the nature of their involvement including the aims of the study, what tasks they will be exposed to, and how the data will be used
Protection from harm
At all times during the study participants must be protected from physical and mental harm.
Anonymity and confidentiality
Data obtained from the research study is not divulged to anyone and the information about participants isn’t shared
Withdrawal from participation
It must be made explicitly clear to participants that since their participation is voluntary, they are free to withdraw from the study at any time
Deception
To avoid participant bias, the true aims and details of the study are not disclosed to the participants. Deception should be kept to a minimum
Debriefing
After the study participants must be fully informed about the study’s nature and its aims
Abnormal psychology
Misconceptions
Myths and the Effects
Media's Role
Entertainment and news media contribute to promoting the link between mental illness and violence.
Sensationalized portrayals reinforce stereotypes.
Importance of Education
Vital to inform and educate society about mental health.
Promote understanding and empathy for individuals with mental health conditions.
Historical Perspective on Abnormal Behavior
Early beliefs: Mental disorders were seen as possession by evil spirits, requiring expulsion.
18th-19th centuries: Shift towards viewing mental illness as a physical disease.
Discovery of syphilis connection to delusions and personality changes supported physical perspective.
Condition of hysteria, prevalent in late 19th-early 20th centuries, viewed as rooted in psychological conflicts (Freud).
Mid-20th century: Some disorders attributed to faulty learning and thinking.
Modern Approaches
Diathesis-stress model proposes biological predisposition may be triggered by psychological stress.
Biopsychosocial perspective integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding mental illness.
Example: Depression explained through genetics, faulty cognition, and lack of social support.
Study of Depression
Investigate interaction of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches to diagnosis, etiology, and treatment.
Examine research methods and ethical considerations.
Factors Influencing Diagnosis
Professionals Involved:
Psychologists: Hold post-graduate degree in clinical psychology.
Psychiatrists: Trained as medical doctors, specialize in psychiatry.
DSM-5: diagnostic tool, published by the American Psychiatric Association, used by clinical practitioners to diagnose a wide assortment of recognized disorders, but is not universally accepted.
Different Approaches and Beliefs:
Abnormal Psychology → focuses on diagnosing, explaining, and treating individuals with psychological disorders.
Psychologists and psychiatrists may have varying opinions on the influence of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors.
Consensus generally agree that abnormal behavior is often influenced by an interaction of all three factors (biological, cognitive, and sociocultural).
Biological Approach:
Focuses on the role of inheritance, brain structure and function, and animal research in understanding abnormal behavior.
Cognitive Approach:
Focuses on faulty schemas, types of thinking, and beliefs (mental processes)
Examines how social and cultural factors influence cognitive processes.
Sociocultural Approach:
Focuses on social needs, cultural influences on defining normal and abnormal behavior.
Explores how culture impacts behavior and the labeling process.
Normality Versus Abnormality
Abnormal Behavior
Includes disordering of emotions, thoughts, and behavior.
Diagnosing mental disorders is more complex than physical disorders.
Abnormal behavior defined based on its rarity in a population.
Rare behavior is labeled as 'abnormal'.
Example: Autism, occurring in 1% to 2% of children in certain regions.
Limitation:
Some rare behaviors may not indicate a mental disorder (e.g., speaking multiple languages).
Difficulty in determining the threshold for defining behavior as abnormal.
Abnormal behavior defined based on societal attitudes and unwritten rules.
Non-conformity to social expectations may lead to labeling as 'abnormal'.
Abnormal behavior defined as actions, moods, or thoughts that significantly impact an individual's well-being.
If a behavior makes life unbearable, it may be considered abnormal.
Challenges in Judgement → Determining when a person's behavior becomes dysfunctional can be difficult.
Example:
Heavy smoking or drinking, while self-harming and causing social and work-related difficulties, may not always be seen as abnormal by society.
Subjectivity of Perception → Individuals not functioning adequately may not perceive themselves as such.
Conditions like depression and phobias, which are prevalent, do not fit criterion of abnormal
Definition of 'Normal'
Relies on socially constructed and mutually agreed upon social and cultural norms.
'Normal' behavior is not static and can change over time and across different cultures and societies.
Example: 19th Century Europe and USA:
Belief among psychiatrists that both physical and mental activity could be harmful to women.
Common diagnosis for women → 'hysteria', a broad term applied to many female patients.
'Cure' for hysteria: Bed rest to prevent both physical and mental activity.
Controversy:
No consensus on what constitutes normality and abnormality.
Diagnosis sometimes is not always reliable or valid.
Ex: The DSM-5
Removal of a behavior from the manual doesn't necessarily mean it's considered normal across all cultures.
Cultural Considerations:
Cultural differences add complexity to diagnosing mental disorders.
Norms vary across different societies and cultures.
Cultural Internalization:
Individuals internalize the norms of their own culture.
Understanding norms of another culture can be challenging.
Example:
Inability to learn to read due to a dysfunction in the corpus callosum may be considered a disorder in literate societies, but not in preliterate societies.
Ethical/Societal Considerations
Diagnosis of a mental disorder has profound consequences, raising important ethical considerations.
Danger → Risk of unfairly labeling individuals who do not conform to societal norms as deviant or threatening to society.
Historical Example:
Mid to late 20th century, Eastern European governments labeled political activists as mentally ill and confined them to mental institutions.
Homosexuality and Transsexuality
Societal attitudes towards these identities vary widely.
In some places, such behavior is illegal and punishable, while in others, there is increased tolerance.
In 1973, homosexuality was removed from the DSM-II classification of mental disorders.
'Sexual Orientation Disturbance' replaced homosexuality as a category, reflecting a compromise between different views.
Current Approach → The DSM-5 uses the classification of Gender Identity Disorder for transgender individuals.
Introduces the term 'gender dysphoria' to denote distress over incongruence between experienced and assigned gender.
Szasz's Perspective on Mental Illness
Szasz (1960) argued that mental illness is a myth, proposing that many psychological disorders are better understood as 'problems in living'.
He criticized the medicalization of these issues and opposed the use of diagnostic systems like the DSM, which imply a medical disease.
Controversial Views
Szasz's notion that mental illness is a myth has generated controversy and has been criticized for going too far (Poulsen, 2012).
Despite controversy, Szasz's ideas continue to stimulate discussions on how to define normality and abnormality and to consider the ethical implications of diagnosis.
Wakefield's Model ('Harmful Dysfunction')
Proposed by Wakefield (2007) for categorizing behaviors as normal or abnormal.
Requires negative valuation by both the community and the individual (harmful) and a malfunction of an internal mechanism (dysfunction).
Challenge in Identifying Dysfunction
Malfunctions of internal mechanisms (e.g., neurotransmitter issues) may not always be linked to abnormal behavior, posing challenges for diagnosis.
The implications of this model for treatment are not yet fully understood.
Deviation from “Ideal Mental Health”
Jahoda (1958) proposed a different approach to defining normality and abnormality.
Outlined characteristics that mentally healthy individuals should possess.
Seen as subjective, with cultural differences affecting how autonomy and independence are perceived.
The Role of Cultural Clinical Biases in Diagnosis
Overview
Different cultures have varying criteria for defining normal and abnormal behavior.
They also have different ways of explaining abnormal behavior.
Culture-bound syndromes: Abnormal behaviors or disorders unique to specific cultures, not recognized outside of that society.
Mental health professionals may exhibit cultural blindness or rely on cultural stereotypes, leading to potential biases in diagnosis.
If a clinician is not familiar with a culture-specific syndrome, they may struggle with diagnosis and treatment, potentially leading to misdiagnosis and mistreatment.
Cultural differences affect how symptoms are reported or expressed may affect diagnosis.
Symptoms of mental disorders may vary across cultures, making diagnosis more complex.
Validity and Reliability of Diagnosis
Diagnosis
Valid Diagnosis: when a diagnosed person genuinely has a particular disorder as defined by diagnostic classification systems.
Establishing validity is challenging without using a diagnostic system, and these systems vary to some extent.
Example: The term "major depressive disorder" refers to a collection of symptoms that may vary between different diagnostic manuals.
Crucial when there are no biological diagnostic tests for the disorder.
Controversial Issue: How to differentiate between a normal response to a life event and the presence of a psychological disorder.
Example - Depression and Bereavement:
In DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), depression after the loss of a loved one was diagnosed as major depressive disorder only if the depression persisted for longer than two months.
In DSM-5, the reference to bereavement has been withdrawn, raising concerns that grief and anxiety may be classified as mental illnesses.
Face Validity in ADHD Diagnosis:
Face validity is present when criteria seem to measure what they claim to measure.
Example - ADHD:
Good Face Validity:
ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) is considered to have good face validity.
Criteria describe behaviors widely accepted cross-culturally as indicative of ADHD (Canino and Alegria, 2008).
Challenge with Clear Face Validity:
Social Desirability Bias:
Criteria with clear face validity are susceptible to social desirability bias.
Individuals may manipulate responses to downplay or conceal problems.
Exaggeration of behaviors might occur to align with the criteria.
Construct Validity in Diagnostic Testing:
Construct Validity: assesses if a diagnostic test effectively supports the diagnosis by evaluating the relevance and accuracy of the questions asked.
Example - Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI-II):
Testing Construct Validity:
Psychologist Aaron Beck tested the construct validity of the Beck's Depression Inventory, version 2.
Used 210 psychiatric outpatients and compared BDI-II results with other diagnostic scales.
Found a high level of agreement, indicating that questions in the inventory were valid for diagnosing depression.
Biases in Clinical Judgment:
Identified Biases:
Pathology bias, confirmatory bias, hindsight bias, misestimation of covariance, decision heuristics, false consensus effect, and over-confidence in clinical judgment.
These biases can influence subjective judgments in diagnosis and treatment planning.
Repeated Measures and Bias Reduction:
Approach to Bias Reduction:
Taking repeated measures of symptoms, akin to the single-subject research design in behavioral sciences.
This approach aims to reduce judgment bias and enhance the accuracy of assessment and treatment.
Reliability in Diagnosis:
Reliability: The accuracy or consistency of a diagnostic test.
Forms of Reliability:
Inter-Rater Reliability
Consistency in diagnoses when different mental health professionals assess the same patient using the same classification system.
Can be low due to overlapping symptoms in disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety).
Example: Two psychologists independently diagnose a patient with depression, demonstrating inter-rater reliability.
Test-Retest Reliability
Consistency of diagnoses over time, ensuring that a patient diagnosed with a certain disorder maintains that diagnosis if the condition persists.
Diagnostic labels can influence subsequent interpretations of behavior, making diagnoses appear 'sticky.'
Example: If a patient diagnosed with schizophrenia continues to exhibit symptoms, the same clinician should diagnose schizophrenia in the future, ensuring test-retest reliability.
Rosenhan Study Connection:
If mental health staff had re-interviewed participants immediately after admission, consistent diagnoses should have led to discharges.
Diagnostic labels, once assigned, influence perceptions of subsequent behavior, creating a "sticky" effect.
Stigmatization
Labeling individuals with mental health disorders may lead to social stigma, discrimination, and negative perceptions.
Ethical Concern → Stigmatization can impact individuals' lives, relationships, and opportunities unfairly.
Example: The stigma attached to certain mental health disorders affects how individuals are perceived and treated in society.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The Expectation of a certain outcome influences behavior, potentially leading individuals to fulfill the predicted behavior.
Ethical Concern: Diagnostic labels can become self-fulfilling prophecies, affecting individuals' perceptions of themselves and their actions.
Example: Once labeled with a mental health disorder, individuals may conform to societal expectations associated with that label.
Etiology of Abnormal Psychology
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)- is a complex mental health condition influenced by a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors.
Diathesis-Stress Model
The idea that neurotransmitters play a crucial role in mood regulation emerged in the mid-1950s.
Drugs affecting the release and breakdown of neurotransmitters, known as catecholamine or monoamine oxidase (MAO) transmitters, were found to have varying effects on mood.
The model proposes that individuals have a biological predisposition (diathesis) for MDD, and the manifestation of the disorder depends on the presence of stressors.
Diathesis (Biological Component): biological predisposition or vulnerability to a particular mental disorder.
In the context of MDD, the diathesis may involve genetic factors, such as an inherited predisposition for depression.
Studies on identical twins often show a higher correlation for MDD, indicating a genetic influence.
Stress (Environmental Component): represents environmental factors or life events that can act as triggers for the development of a mental disorder.
In the case of MDD, stressors could include significant life events, chronic stress, or traumatic experiences.
The diathesis alone may not lead to MDD; it interacts with stressors to increase the likelihood of the disorder.
The diathesis and stress components interact, influencing the likelihood and severity of MDD.
Individuals with a higher genetic predisposition may require lower levels of stress to trigger MDD, while those with a lower diathesis may need more significant stressors.
The model acknowledges individual differences in vulnerability and resilience.
Some individuals may have a strong diathesis, making them more susceptible to MDD, while others may have a weaker diathesis and require more substantial stressors.
The diathesis-stress model emphasizes a holistic understanding of mental disorders by considering biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors.
It recognizes that the interplay of genetic and environmental influences contributes to the complexity of MDD.
The diathesis-stress model is a general framework applicable to various mental disorders, not limited to MDD.
It is used to explain the multifaceted nature of mental health conditions and how different factors contribute to their development.
Chronic Illness: Some medical conditions, such as chronic pain or serious illnesses, may contribute to the development of depression.
Noradrenaline and Serotonin Hypotheses
In 1965, Schildkraut proposed that depression might be associated with low levels of noradrenaline.
Subsequent research led to the hypothesis that serotonin, another neurotransmitter, was of particular interest in understanding depression (Coppen et al., 1967).
Antidepressant Medications:
The neurotransmitter theory influenced the development of antidepressant drugs, including tricyclics, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
SSRIs, such as fluoxetine (Prozac), became a major breakthrough, targeting the reuptake of serotonin and extending its activity in the synaptic gap.
Efficacy of Antidepressants:
The effectiveness of antidepressant drugs has supported the association between neurotransmitter levels and depression.
SSRIs, by preventing the reuptake of serotonin, have been successful in treating MDD.
Critiques and Complexities:
The neurochemical theory, while influential, has faced criticism.
The short duration of neurotransmitter level changes compared to the delayed onset of antidepressant effects challenges the direct causation of depression by neurotransmitter deficiencies.
Lacasse and Leo argue against the idea of a baseline 'normal' serotonin level and caution against assuming causation based on the effectiveness of antidepressants (2005).
Levinson (2006) notes that a genetic factor, the short allele on the 5-HTT gene, affects serotonin reuptake similarly to Prozac but is associated with a higher risk of depression.
Need for Further Research
Despite advancements, there is a need for more in-depth investigation into the neurochemical aspects of depression.
Questions about the precise relationship between neurotransmitter levels, genetics, and depression remain, highlighting the complexity of the disorder.
Foundations of Cognitive Approach
According to the cognitive model, thoughts and beliefs play a crucial role in shaping behavior and emotions.
Psychological distress is viewed as dependent on an individual's cognitive processes, including schemas, cognitive structures, and assumptions.
Aaron Beck's Contribution:
Aaron Beck, a prominent psychologist, proposed that depression arises when individuals make attributions for external events based on maladaptive beliefs and attitudes.
Beck argued that at every level of depression, there is a deviation from logical and realistic thinking.
Depressed individuals exhibit themes such as low self-evaluation, ideas of deprivation, exaggeration of problems, self-criticism, self-command, and thoughts of escape or death.
Cognitive Vulnerability
Cognitive vulnerability is considered a high-risk factor for depression.
Three key concepts contribute to cognitive vulnerability: the cognitive triad, schemas, and cognitive errors.
Cognitive Triad
A negative view of oneself, the world, and the future characterizes the cognitive triad in depression.
Negative view of the self: Depressed individuals perceive themselves as deficient, inadequate, and unworthy.
Negative view of the world: Interactions and life experiences are seen as difficult or hopeless, emphasizing defeats and failures.
Negative view of the future: Current difficulties are viewed as continuing indefinitely, leading to a sense of despair and hopelessness.
Schemas
patterns of maladaptive thoughts and beliefs that become activated, particularly during stressful circumstances.
These maladaptive beliefs influence how individuals interpret the world, assigning positive or negative meaning to events.
Cognitive Errors:
involve faulty thinking accompanied by negative and unrealistic representations of reality.
Hormonal Changes and Sociocultural Influences
While biological factors such as hormonal changes are considered triggers for depression, sociocultural psychologists argue that the social context, including gender expectations, interacts with these biological factors.
Adolescence and Gender Role Expectations:
Sociocultural factors, including societal expectations and gender roles, may contribute to depression during adolescence.
Social pressures on females to internalize feelings of anger and conform to traditional gender roles may contribute to the development of depression.
Gender Disparities:
Girls and women are reported to be diagnosed with MDD at a higher rate than boys and men.
Sociocultural psychologists argue that gender-related factors, such as societal restrictions and devaluation of women, contribute to the increased prevalence of depression in females.
Economic and Social Disparities:
Poverty and social isolation are identified as sociocultural factors influencing MDD.
Men in economically and socially disadvantaged groups are reported to be more likely to experience depressive symptoms compared to wealthier individuals.
Cross-Cultural Variations:
Sociocultural factors influencing depression may vary across cultures.
Studies in different countries, such as Poland, Russia, and the Czech Republic, highlight the impact of economic and social factors on the prevalence of depressive symptoms.
Treatment of Disorders
Drug Categories:
Two older groups of antidepressants are tricyclics and MAO (Monoamine Oxidase) inhibitors. While effective, they often have troublesome side effects and can be lethal if misused.
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine (Prozac), are newer antidepressants that have become popular due to their effectiveness and generally milder side effects.
Limitations of Drug Therapy:
Drug therapy is criticized for treating symptoms rather than curing the disorder. Patients often need to continue medication to maintain the therapeutic effect.
Many antidepressants have significant side effects, although they are generally considered safer than earlier drugs that were associated with a risk of suicide.
Assessing Effectiveness:
Assessing the effectiveness of antidepressant medication is challenging
it's difficult to determine the course of MDD without medication
Placebo-controlled trials are one method
Emerging Treatments:
Ketamine, an anesthetic and a street drug known as "Special K," has shown promise in rapidly alleviating depression. It acts on different neurotransmitter receptors (glutamate) than traditional antidepressants.
Ketamine's quick action is notable, as many standard antidepressants may take weeks to show an effect. However, ketamine can have hallucinogenic effects and affects parts of the brain not directly related to depression.
While new treatments like ketamine show promise, challenges exist, such as potential side effects and suitability for all patients.
Ongoing research aims to identify safer and more effective biological interventions for MDD.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
a psychiatric treatment that involves the administration of a short electrical stimulus to the brain through electrodes placed on the temples.
Procedure:
The patient is anesthetized to induce unconsciousness during the procedure.
A muscle relaxant is administered to prevent convulsions from spreading to the rest of the body.
Tiny electrodes are placed on the temples, and a brief electrical charge is delivered to induce a controlled, therapeutic seizure.
The entire procedure typically lasts for a few seconds.
Treatment Sessions:
ECT is usually administered in a series of sessions, with one electrical charge per day.
A common treatment schedule involves two or three sessions per week.
The entire course of treatment may consist of six to twelve sessions.
Indications for Use:
ECT is often considered when other treatments, such as medication, have not been effective, especially in cases of severe depression or treatment-resistant Major Depressive Disorder (MDD).
Immediate Antidepressant Effect:
Some research, such as the findings by Lapidus et al. (2013), suggests that a low-dose ECT treatment targeting the right side of the brain can have an immediate antidepressant effect.
Higher repeat doses may not be necessary in some cases.
Combination with Other Treatments:
Both medications and ECT can be more effective when combined with psychotherapy.
The integration of multiple treatment modalities is often referred to as a multimodal or comprehensive treatment approach.
Side Effects and Risks:
ECT is generally considered safe, but it can have side effects, including short-term memory loss and confusion immediately following the treatment.
The risk of more serious side effects is minimized through careful monitoring and the use of anesthetics and muscle relaxants.
Neuronal and Synaptic Changes in MDD:
Researchers conducted a meta-analysis of clinical studies that revealed associations between depression and reduced size in brain regions crucial for mood and cognition, specifically the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus.
Additionally, decreased neuronal synapses were observed in these areas, indicating structural alterations at the synaptic level.
Antidepressant Effects on Neuronal Deficits:
The study highlighted that traditional antidepressants can block or reverse the neuronal deficits observed in MDD.
However, these antidepressants are noted to have limited efficacy and often require weeks to months to show a therapeutic response.
Ketamine's Rapid Antidepressant Response:
A significant aspect of the research is the observation that ketamine, an anesthetic and street drug, produces rapid antidepressant responses within hours, a notable contrast to the delayed response times of traditional antidepressants.
Ketamine's effectiveness is particularly noteworthy in patients who are resistant to typical antidepressants.
Basic studies discussed in the research indicate that ketamine rapidly induces action at the synaptic gap, potentially influencing neurotransmission.
Ketamine is reported to reverse synaptic deficits caused by chronic stress, offering a potential explanation for its rapid antidepressant effects.
Psychological Treatments of Depression
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Developed by Aaron T. Beck, is a widely used and effective therapeutic approach for treating depression and various mental health conditions.
Most common psychological treatment for Major Depressive Disorder
CBT encompasses various specific treatment approaches, incorporating both cognitive and behavioral strategies.
The term "cognitive-behavioral" indicates the integration of techniques that address both cognitive (thought-related) and behavioral aspects.
Definition and Techniques
CBGT utilizes the group format in addition to common cognitive-behavioral therapy techniques to bring about changes in individuals' cognitive and behavioral patterns (Bieling et al., 2006).
A key component of CBT is educating the client about the concept of faulty thinking.
Clients learn to recognize and challenge negative thought patterns, gaining insight into the impact of these thoughts on their behavior and emotional well-being.
Emphasis on Core Psychological Beliefs
Beck emphasized the importance of understanding and changing core psychological beliefs as a central aspect of treating depression.
Core beliefs often involve negative thinking patterns and distorted perceptions of oneself, experiences, and the environment.
Restructuring Negative Thinking
The core of CBT involves restructuring negative thinking. This process aims to challenge and change irrational or dysfunctional thought patterns that contribute to depressive feelings.
By modifying these negative thoughts, positive changes can be achieved in the client's emotional and behavioral responses.
CBT involves generating new, more adaptive ideas and ways of thinking to cultivate a positive outlook on oneself, experiences, and the surrounding environment.
The goal is to replace negative thought patterns with more constructive and positive ones.
Role of the Therapist:
The therapist plays a crucial role in CBT by actively engaging the client in the therapeutic process.
Beck and Weishaar (1989) emphasize that the therapist's role in CBT is to assist clients in examining alternative interpretations and providing contradictory evidence.
The therapeutic process aims to facilitate cognitive restructuring, wherein clients revise and replace faulty thoughts and beliefs.
Collaboration between the therapist and client involves setting realistic goals and taking responsibility for actions and thoughts.
Home Assignments:
Therapists often assign homework to reinforce and apply what is learned during therapy sessions.
Home assignments may include activities that help the individual review and understand the impact of faulty thinking on their behavior and emotional well-being.
Changing Thought and Perception:
CBT posits that changing thought and perception can lead to changes in behavior and emotional responses.
The therapy focuses on identifying and altering negative thought patterns that contribute to depression
Importance of Thoughts → The phrase "It is the thought that counts" underscores the significance of cognitive processes in influencing emotions and behavior.
By addressing and modifying negative thought patterns, CBT aims to bring about positive changes in emotional states.
Addressing Faulty Thoughts → The focus of CBT is to help individuals recognize and challenge faulty interpretations and conclusions that contribute to their depressive feelings.
Clients are encouraged to treat their faulty interpretations as testable hypotheses, allowing for an examination of alternative interpretations and the production of contradictory evidence.
Education and Awareness:
A key component of CBT is educating the client about the concept of faulty thinking.
Clients learn to recognize and challenge negative thought patterns, gaining insight into the impact of these thoughts on their behavior and emotional well-being.
Specific Approaches in Depression:
In the context of depression, CBT includes cognitive restructuring and the behavioral strategy of activity scheduling or behavioral activation.
Cognitive restructuring involves addressing and modifying negative thoughts underlying depression.
Effectiveness in Different Settings → CBGT has been shown to be effective in various settings, including residential and outpatient clinics.
Hunter et al. (2012) demonstrated the effectiveness of CBGT in treating major depression in clients undergoing residential substance abuse treatment. The results included a decrease in symptoms of depression and substance abuse after discharge.
Group Dynamics and Engagement
The theory behind group therapy for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is that individuals may feel more compelled to engage in group discussions than they would in individual therapy sessions.
Group members can benefit from hearing about the experiences of others facing similar challenges, fostering a sense of connection and shared understanding.
Group therapy provides an opportunity for participants to learn from the experiences of others in similar circumstances.
Observing and interacting with individuals who have successfully recovered or improved can instill hope in group members about their own potential for positive change.
Eclectic Approach
An eclectic approach involves combining two or more therapeutic techniques to tailor the treatment to the individual or group's specific needs.
Common Combinations → Half of all therapists describe themselves as taking an eclectic approach, and the most common combination is drug therapy and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT).
Types of Eclectic Approaches
Simultaneous use involves employing multiple therapies at the same time.
Sequential use is when one therapy follows another.
Stage-oriented use employs one therapy at a critical stage and introduces others at the maintenance stage.
Advantages of Eclectic Approach (Lebow, 2002)
Broader theoretical base, potentially more sophisticated than a single-theory approach.
Greater flexibility to meet individual therapy needs.
Increased chances of finding an effective treatment with multiple approaches.
Suitable for a wider range of clients.
Objective and adaptable approach for therapists.
The therapist can revise and rebalance treatment based on effectiveness.
The Role of Culture in Treating Depression
Cultural Competence in Providing Therapy
Mental health professionals should be competent in providing therapy to individuals from various cultures.
Yeung and Kam (2006) emphasize that cultural differences can influence how individuals express and perceive symptoms of mental health issues, such as depression.
For example, their study indicates that Chinese clients may present depression differently than Americans or Europeans, with a higher proportion emphasizing physical symptoms over emotional ones.
Cultural Sensitivity in Therapy
Therapy itself should be sensitive to the culture of the client.
Therapists need to understand how cultural beliefs influence the presentation of symptoms and the acceptance of a diagnosis like depression.
Cultural competence is crucial in conducting culturally sensitive psychological evaluations.
Modifying Therapy Based on Culture (Gross, 2010)
Social roles within families, particularly in Asian cultures, are often well-defined and structured by age and sex. Understanding these dynamics is essential for effective therapy.
Therapy approaches emphasizing individual autonomy may clash with cultural values that prioritize family loyalties.
Cultural worldviews that attribute events to factors like fate or powerful others may require a different therapeutic approach than one that emphasizes personal responsibility.
Acknowledging spirituality is important in many cultures, and therapists need to recognize and respect the role of spirituality in the healing process.
Treatment Description:
OHDC is a culturally specific Cognitive-Behavioral Group Therapy (CBGT) designed for African Americans with depression.
The 12-week course involved 2.5-hour weekly sessions and was facilitated by African-American clinicians.
The course content included skills to cope with depression, incorporating African-American cultural beliefs and humanistic principles originating in Africa.
Topics covered in the course included anger management, forgiveness, and constructive thinking.
Assessing the Effectiveness of Treatments for Depression
Symptom Reduction
Primary strength → Effectively reduces symptoms of severe mental disorders.
Leads to significant improvement in mental health and overall functioning.
Complementary to Psychotherapy
Combining with psychotherapy enhances effectiveness.
Integration addresses both biological and psychological aspects (Cuijpers et al., 2010).
Quick Onset of Action
Some medications, like SSRIs, offer a relatively quick onset of action.
Crucial for alleviating acute symptoms and providing timely relief.
Improving Quality of Life
Successful treatment significantly enhances the overall quality of life.
Improvements in mood, cognition contribute to a better life.
Providing a Sense of Hope
Diagnosis and potential treatment instill hope.
Knowledge of treatment options contributes to a positive outlook.
Reducing the Risk of Relapse
Continuation of medication, as in MDD, decreases relapse risk.
Maintenance therapy sustains positive effects achieved during treatment.
Strengths of Individual Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD):
Client Empowerment:
Appeal of Control: CBT places control in the hands of the client, empowering them in the therapeutic process.
Active Participation: Clients actively engage in identifying and modifying maladaptive thoughts and behaviors.
Cognitive Focus:
Testable Cognitive Theories: Cognitive theories underlying CBT are testable, allowing for empirical evaluation.
Identification of Maladaptive Thoughts: Many individuals with psychological disorders, including MDD, display maladaptive assumptions and thoughts.
Effectiveness in Treating Mental Disorders:
Empirical Support: Studies, such as those by Beck et al. (1989), confirm the efficacy of CBT in treating mental disorders, especially depression, anxiety, and sexual disorders.
Well-established Approach: CBT is widely recognized and utilized for its effectiveness in addressing various mental health issues.
Rigorous Evaluation Criticism:
Critique of Rigor: Some studies confirming CBT efficacy have faced criticism for a perceived lack of rigor (Kramer, 2008).
Need for Robust Research: Continuous efforts are needed to ensure methodological rigor in evaluating the effectiveness of CBT.
Emotional Aspect Criticism:
Emphasis on Emotional Life: A persistent criticism is that CBT may not sufficiently emphasize a person’s emotional life.
Quick Fix Critique: Described by Rowe (2008) as a 'quick fix' that simplifies the complexity of emotional experiences underlying mental distress.
Simplicity vs. Depth Criticism:
Simplicity Critique: Criticized for oversimplifying the complexities of the emotional and psychological aspects of mental distress.
Assault on the Sense of Self Critique: Described as potentially minimizing the profound impact on the sense of self associated with mental distress.
Processes and Functions of The Structural Changes of the Brain
Structural Changes of the Brain
The brain is a complex system of highly interrelated elements, and its successful development requires that each component be formed in a timely, fully integrated manner with the others. This process happens throughout four stages, each being crucial for the functional and structural components of our brains. The processes are:
Neurogenesis
Migration
Differentiation
Pruning
Brain Development
A complex system of interrelated elements
Successful development requires timely, complete, and correct integration of components.
Neurogenesis
Involves the production of new nerve cells (neurons), which help transmit information throughout the nervous system.
Neurons play major roles in various cognitive functions, including but not limited to mood regulation, cognitive flexibility, and memory encoding.
Neurons contribute to various cognitive and functional aspects of human life, such as mood regulation, memory encoding, flexibility, and more.
Neurogenesis is a critical stage of structural change
It sets the foundation for brain function
While neurogenesis mostly occurs during early development, it can still happen during adulthood.
Migration
The neurons produced in neurogenesis migrate to their “designated” location around 9 weeks after conception
They travel along glial fibers which are supported by the central nervous system
These fibers go from the brain’s inward structure to the cortical layers
Glial Fibers: non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system that form early in the fetal brain
Function: provide support and protection for neurons
Process
As the brain grows, the glial fibers stretch and curve, these fibers then form pathways that direct neurons to the “correct” position in the brain
Neurons “climb” along the fibers like a snake of a tree
At the cells' final position, dendritic growth starts
Dendritic growth: allows neurons to connect with other neurons
The process then begins building layer-by-layer, progressing outward from the brain cortex (outermost layer of the brain, located on the top of your cerebrum
Neuronal Growth
Neuronal growth occurs in the brain cortex
New neurons form below the previously layers
The new neurons then travel outside while passing existing layers of neurons
Differentiation
The growth of connections between neurons (synapses)
Synapse: a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute ages across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter
Synapses start growing shortly after conception
Eventually becomes rapid, with 40,000 synapses per second
Rapidness continues until nearly 2 years of age
This is followed by a plateau and then a rapid reduction of the number of synapses
Pruning
The elimination of the connections between neurons made in Differentiation
Elimination of neurons themselves
Elimination occurs at a rate of 100,000 synapses per second
Timing
Pruning is most active during childhood and adolescence, correlating with critical periods of learning and development.
The brain undergoes significant reorganization during these periods, allowing for the acquisition of complex skills and adaptive behaviors.
Pruning lasts until the end of puberty
At this point, around 50% of initially formed synapses are eliminated
This is followed by another plateau and then another drop in the number of synapses in old age
Lifespan Changes
Synaptic pruning continues into old age
Contributes to changes in cognitive functions associated with aging
The balance between synapse formation and pruning shifts throughout life
Reflects the brain's ongoing adaptation to experiences and environmental demands
Impact on Cognitive Development
Efficient pruning is essential for healthy cognitive development.
Excessive or insufficient pruning can lead to neurological and psychiatric conditions.
Excessive pruning has been linked to disorders such as schizophrenia.
Insufficient pruning is associated with autism spectrum disorders.
Brain Structure-Function Relationship
Complexity and Maturation
Understanding human psychological development involves more than just changes in brain structure.
It requires integrating knowledge across several domains:
Structural Changes: While structural changes in the brain occur throughout development, they alone cannot fully explain psychological maturation.
Integration of Knowledge: To gain a comprehensive understanding, it's essential to combine insights from studies on structure-function relationships in the adult brain, behavioral changes observed in adults with brain lesions, and evidence from advanced neuroimaging techniques.
Synaptic Density and Cognitive Abilities
Infants vs. Adults
Infants have a higher synaptic density compared to adults.
This abundance of synaptic connections reflects the brain's plasticity early in life.
Misconceptions
Having more synaptic connections does not necessarily translate to superior cognitive abilities.
Synaptic pruning plays a critical role in cognitive development.
It refines and strengthens essential connections
Supporting Studies
Werker and Tees (1992)
Focus: Studied infants' ability to discriminate phonemes from English and Hindi.
Method: Used the High-Amplitude Sucking (HAS) technique to measure infants' responses to speech sounds
Findings:
Infants initially discriminated between speech sounds from both English and Hindi.
Infants primarily discriminate speech sounds from their parents' language by one-year-old.
Showed synaptic pruning refines cognitive abilities, focusing sensitivity on native language sounds.
Significance: Emphasized synaptic pruning's role in language development, illustrating how early experiences shape perceptual abilities.
Historical and Modern Methods of Study
Understanding brain development has evolved from early post-mortem studies to modern neuroimaging techniques. Initial studies focused on brain size, which increased until about 9-10 years old, but didn't directly determine cognitive ability. The advent of MRI and PET scans enabled real-time insights, emphasizing neuronal connectivity over brain size.
Early Studies
Post-Mortem Studies: Early understanding of brain development was primarily derived from post-mortem studies focusing on brain size and anatomical features.
Limitations: While these studies provided foundational insights, they were limited by their inability to observe dynamic changes in the living brain and their focus on anatomical rather than functional aspects.
Findings: They revealed that brain size increases steadily until around 9-10 years of age. However, the relationship between brain size and cognitive ability is not linear, underscoring the need for more nuanced approaches to studying brain development.
Brain Imaging Technologies
Advancements: The advent of modern brain imaging technologies, such as MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and PET (Positron Emission Tomography), has revolutionized our ability to study the brain in real time.
Significance: These technologies enable researchers to examine not only the structural aspects of the brain but also its functional organization and activity patterns. This shift has emphasized the importance of neuronal connectivity and networks over simple measures of brain size or density.
Health Psychology (IB)
7.1 Introduction to Health Psychology
Health psychology:
The scientific study of psychological processes related to health and healthcare (Friedman and Adler, 2007).
Focuses on treating serious infections to prevent health problems linked to lifestyle choices.
Emphasized by organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Psychological Association (APA).
Aaron Antonovsky: Contributions and Concepts
Medical sociologist known for research on sociological and psychological aspects of health.
Focused on why some individuals stay healthy despite extreme stressors.
Discovered resilient individuals, like some women who survived Nazi concentration camps, remained confident and happy despite traumatic experiences.
Core Tenets in Health Psychology:
Views individuals as complex systems affected by various factors.
Includes biology, behavior, and sociocultural contexts.
The Biopsychosocial Model is a widely adopted model explaining health issues as a result of interconnected systems.
Stress and Stressors
A negative emotional experience accompanied by physiological, cognitive, and behavioral changes.
Any adverse or challenging event, whether physiological or psychosocial, can be labeled a stressor.
Stress responses occur regardless of whether stressors are consciously perceived.
Beliefs and expectations influence how individuals cope with stressors.
Types of Stressors:
Acute Stressors: Sudden, short-lived, demand immediate attention (e.g., physical injury, predator attack).
Chronic Stressors: Long-lasting, continuous sources of worry, potentially harmful due to prolonged exposure. In chronic stress, the body may not return to its normal physiological state (homeostasis) due to constant stress presence.
Prolonged stress can have damaging effects on the body, notably through increased cortisol levels, impacting health negatively.
Holmes-Rahe Scale (1967)
Objective: To assign values to stressful events based on the impact of these events on individuals' lives.
Methodology: An opportunity sample of 394 individuals in the US reviewed a list of 43 life events, marking those experienced in the previous 12 or 24 months.
Rating Scale: Participants rated events based on their perceived time required for readjustment and accommodation of stressors.
Surprising Agreement: Despite individual differences, participants displayed notable consistency in evaluating stressors' impact.
Correlation with Health: Studies revealed a modest correlation between high-rated stressors and subsequent illness or accidents.
Physiological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Stress
Stress and Coping:
Coping is an effort to handle or mitigate a threat's impact on an individual.
The perception of stress arises from the perceived discrepancy between situational demands and an individual's perceived resources, whether realistic or unrealistic.
The impact of perception on an individual evaluation influences the approach to confronting stressful situations.
Physiological Aspects of Stress:
The sympathetic nervous system response prepares the body for "fight or flight" by triggering physiological changes, including increased blood pressure and glucose supply to muscles.
A stress response is an arousal facilitated by releasing stress hormones (e.g., adrenaline) from the adrenal glands to energize the body to confront or avoid the threat.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) by Hans Selye (1956):
Three Stages of Stress Response:
Alarm Stage: Initial fight-or-flight response to stressors.
Resistance Stage: Coping and attempts to reverse the effects of the alarm stage.
Exhaustion Stage: Reached after repeated exposure to stressors, rendering the individual incapable of further coping.
Relationship Between Stress and Health Problems:
Long-term stress can increase cortisol levels affecting mental health (e.g., depression, memory problems) and the immune system.
Cortisol's effects decrease the number of natural killer cells (T-cells), making individuals more susceptible to infections.
Kiecolt-Glaser et al.'s Study (1984):
Blood Sample Analysis: Examined medical students' blood samples before and during their final exams.
Findings: Significant decrease in T-cell activity during high-stress periods (final exams).
Psychological Stress Influence: High levels of stressful life events and loneliness are associated with lower T-cell counts, indicating a connection between psychological stress, loneliness, and compromised immune system function.
Social Self-Preservation Theory:
Threats to Social Self and Health: Threats to social esteem or status, leading to negative cognitive and affective responses (e.g., shame, humiliation), influence physical health via the immune system, or increased cortisol levels.
Impact on HIV-Positive Individuals: HIV infection occurs in stigmatized groups (e.g., gay and bisexual men), and the disease itself carries social stigma. HIV-positive individuals sensitive to rejection related to their sexuality show faster disease progression (Kemeny et al., 2005).
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI):
Psychological State and Immune System: Psychoneuroimmunology assumes that an individual's psychological state can influence the immune system through the nervous system.
"Positive Thinking" and Health: PNI provides a scientific basis for the influence of positive thinking on health outcomes, but generalized conclusions remain challenging due to the complexity of these interactions.
Social Aspects of Stress
Social Relationships and Well-being:
Group Living and Well-being: Human well-being may be compromised if social relationships are stressful. Social stressors include family abuse, bullying, and residing in violent neighborhoods.
Alleviating Stress through Social Support:
Role of Social Support: Social support, such as having close friends or a supportive family, can alleviate stress.
Early Family Environment: The early family environment and cultural norms form the basis for social competence and stress management.
Effect of Nurturing Families: Warm and nurturing families impart stress management skills to children and offer effective role models for positive social interactions.
Influence of Interpersonal Interactions on Social Support:
Negative Interactions and Social Support: Adults displaying hostility and cynicism in interpersonal interactions tend to report lower social support (Smith et al., 1992).
Association with Early Family Environment: Negative interaction styles may stem from unsupportive or conflict-ridden family environments experienced during early development.
Coping and Coping Strategies: Insights from Lazarus and Folkman (1975)
Transactional Model of Stress:
Stress Transaction: Stress involves a transaction between an individual and the external world; only events perceived as stressful elicit a stress response.
Importance of Psychological Factors: Lazarus and Folkman's model emphasizes psychological factors in stress management.
Appraisal Process:
Primary Appraisal: Event evaluation as irrelevant, positive, or negative to one's well-being.
Secondary Appraisal: Consideration of relevant coping strategies to effectively deal with the stressor; may involve confidence or doubt. Both appraisals are continuous and interdependent; reappraisal can lead to the adoption of more efficient coping strategies.
Coping Strategies:
Problem-Focused Coping: Addresses the stressor directly, aiming to change the problematic situation (e.g., quitting an impossible job, or leaving an abusive partner).
Emotion-Focused Coping: Deals with emotional aspects of stress rather than changing the situation; includes activities like relaxation exercises, seeking social support, or using substances to alleviate tension.
Impact of Coping on Stress and Health:
Active Coping Reduces Stress: People benefit positively and experience lower stress levels when actively engaging in stress-reducing activities.
Belief in Stress Management: Belief in one's ability to manage stress reduces stress intensity and duration, potentially reducing risk factors in health (e.g., stress-related heart disease). Activities like yoga or spending time with friends can effectively reduce stress.
Social Support as a Coping Strategy
Gender Differences and Social Support:
Taylor's Theory - Tend and Befriend: Women tend to provide and seek social support more consistently during stress, while men might exhibit fight-or-flight responses due to hormonal differences (Taylor, 2002).
Women's Involvement in Social Support: Women are more engaged in giving and receiving social support, often mobilizing networks—particularly female friends and relatives—in times of stress (Thoits, 1995; Belle, 1987).
Cultural Variations in Social Support:
Cultural Impact on Social Support: Cultural differences in perceptions of social support exist, influenced by the independence vs. interdependence dimension. Individualistic cultures emphasize self-independence, while collectivist cultures focus on interdependence (Taylor, 2008).
Cultural Differences in Coping: Studies indicate variations in the use of social support as a coping strategy among different cultures (Taylor et al., 2004).
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) as a Coping Strategy
Understanding MBSR:
Purpose of MBSR: MBSR, developed by Kabat-Zinn, aims to reduce stress by cultivating mindfulness—a present-moment awareness without judgment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
Training Method: The program involves meditation training, teaching individuals to approach stress mindfully rather than react automatically, aiming to mitigate negative thought patterns.
Research Evidence on MBSR's Efficacy:
Shapiro et al.'s Study on Medical Students: A controlled study showed that students who underwent MBSR reported less anxiety during exams and demonstrated higher empathy levels compared to the control group (Shapiro et al., 1998).
Effectiveness in Stress Reduction: Results suggest MBSR's effectiveness in reducing anxiety, depression, and psychological distress during high-stress periods, as observed in medical students.
7.2 Substance abuse, addictive behavior, and obesity
Substance use for altering mood, cognition, or behavior has been common throughout history.
Most substances, even seemingly harmless ones like coffee, can lead to dependence and withdrawal symptoms with prolonged use.
Addiction is characterized by a compulsion to continuously use a substance to avoid discomfort and seek its effects.
Addiction is not limited to drugs and can encompass behaviors like gambling, shopping, and internet use.
The focus of the passage is primarily on nicotine addiction.
Substance Use:
Involves the consumption or use of various substances, such as alcohol and nicotine.
Substance Addiction:
Characterized by continued substance use despite awareness of associated problems.
Involves persistent desire and unsuccessful attempts to control substance use.
Psychological Addiction:
Involves craving, a strong desire to use the substance.
Triggers for craving include situations associated with substance use, mood, and psychological state (e.g., after meals, during breaks, when feeling angry).
Physiological Addiction:
Involves symptoms like tolerance (needing more of the substance for the same effect).
Withdrawal symptoms can occur if the substance is not taken, such as nausea, irritability, anxiety, difficulty concentrating, and increased appetite.
Investigated Factors:
Biological Factors: Includes physiological aspects that might influence smoking behavior.
Psychological Factors: Involves mental and emotional aspects that drive smoking initiation, continuation, and cessation difficulties.
Social Factors: Pertains to the influence of the environment, society, and social circles on smoking habits.
Biological factors related to addictive behavior: smoking
Nicotine's Effects:
The active ingredient in tobacco is a psychoactive drug.
Smokers intake around 1-2mg of nicotine per cigarette.
Effects include:
Stimulation of adrenaline release, increasing heart rate and blood pressure.
Stimulation of dopamine release in the brain's reward circuits leads to brief pleasure.
Acute effects wear off quickly, prompting smokers to continue for sustained pleasure and to prevent withdrawal symptoms.
Acts on acetylcholine receptors, prompting the brain to adapt by growing more receptors to maintain balance.
Addictive Nature of Nicotine:
Research suggests nicotine is as addictive as heroin and cocaine.
Once addicted, smokers experience withdrawal symptoms without a consistent nicotine level in the body.
Cognitive and sociocultural factors related to addictive behavior: smoking
Charlton's Study (1984): Found that young smokers associated smoking with fun and pleasure.
Manipulation of Cognitions and Advertising:
Advertising agencies leverage cognition manipulation as a powerful tool.
People's self-image and beliefs are crucial; if one believes smoking is 'cool,' the likelihood of smoking increases.
Social Learning Theory: Posts that smoking behavior is learned, influenced significantly by the social environment.
Treatments
Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT):
NRT includes products like chewing gum, patches, and spray, which can help reduce nicotine dependence.
Nicotine gum, in particular, has been effective in preventing short-term relapse, serving as a valuable addition to treatment programs.
Zyban (Bupropion):
Zyban, originally an antidepressant, emerged in the late 1990s as a smoking cessation aid.
It acts on brain receptors affected by nicotine, helping relieve withdrawal symptoms and blocking nicotine effects if smoking resumes.
Tailored Treatment and Long-term Cessation Programs:
Research suggests that personalized treatments increase the chances of success in smoking cessation.
Long-term cessation programs have shown greater success in preventing relapse.
Efficient Methods for Smoking Cessation:
Pisinger's (2008) research highlights that effective methods often involve consultations and participation in smoking cessation interventions, either individually or in groups.
Nicotine replacement therapies (like gum, patches, and spray) and Zyban are efficient, especially when combined with other interventions.
Factors related to overeating and the development of obesity
Global Epidemic of Obesity:
WHO reports that obesity has become a worldwide epidemic, affecting over a billion overweight adults, with at least 300 million classified as clinically obese.
The prevalence of overweight individuals now surpasses malnutrition and hunger worldwide (WHO, 2004).
Causes of Obesity:
Environmental factors, such as the availability of food, dietary fat intake, and lack of physical activity, are recognized as major contributors to the obesity epidemic.
Obesity stems from an imbalance between stored fat and energy expenditure used for physical activities and various bodily functions, including respiration and blood pressure regulation.
Physiological aspects of obesity
Genetic Predisposition:
Body size tends to run in families, indicating a genetic link to obesity.
Having one obese parent increases the likelihood of obesity by 40% while having two obese parents raises it to 80%.
Research by Garn et al. (1981) suggested that thin parents have a lower chance (around 7%) of having an overweight child.
Cognitive factors related to obesity
Dieting and Cognitive Restraint:
Dieting involves replacing physiological hunger with cognitive restraint and restricting food intake.
Cognitive restraint theory suggests that extreme dieting below hunger levels could lead to obesity as the body's hunger signals persist.
Chronic dieters, often obese, experience breaking their diets due to unrealistic goals, leading to feelings of loss of control and overeating.
False Hope Syndrome and Unrealistic Expectations:
Obese dieters may set unrealistic goals and have overly optimistic expectations about rapid weight loss, expecting radical life changes.
The false hope syndrome explains how unrealistic expectations and unattainable criteria for success contribute to the lack of success in dieting and weight loss maintenance.
All-or-nothing Thinking and the "What-the-Hell Effect":
Dieters guided by an all-or-nothing mindset tend to view minor slip-ups as major failures, leading to abandoning the diet and indulging in excessive eating.
The "what-the-hell effect" describes tendency for chronic dieters to overeat after a perceived failure, perpetuating a cycle of dieting and overindulgence.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
Judith Beck's CBT-Based Programme:
Judith Beck developed a CBT-based weight loss program aiming to change thoughts and behaviors related to eating in obese women.
A pilot study conducted at the Beck Institute involved 10 obese women (weighing between 90-136 kilograms) who successfully lost weight and maintained it a year later.
Beck emphasizes targeting thoughts and beliefs contributing to overeating, focusing on "permission-giving beliefs" leading directly to excessive eating, such as eating when upset.
Drug treatments
Weight-Loss Medication Overview:
Obesity is considered a chronic disease by the National Institute of Health in the US.
Weight-loss medication is recommended in combination with healthy eating and regular exercise programs.
Few studies have evaluated the long-term effectiveness and safety of these drugs, leading to concerns about potential overprescription.
Most drugs approved by the FDA are intended for short-term use but may be used for longer periods.
Types of Weight-Loss Drugs:
Appetite Suppressants: These drugs reduce appetite or induce a feeling of fullness by increasing neurotransmitter levels affecting mood and appetite (e.g., serotonin and adrenaline).
They have shown some effectiveness but come with side effects such as nausea, constipation, and dry mouth.
Lipase Inhibitors: Act on the gastrointestinal system, reducing fat absorption and potentially causing unpleasant side effects, particularly after consuming high-fat meals, such as diarrhea. This could act as a deterrent to consuming high-fat foods.
Study on Sibutramine (Appetite-Suppressant Drug):
Berkowitz et al. (2006) conducted a randomized trial involving obese adolescents (age range 12-16 years) to test sibutramine's weight reduction effects compared to a placebo.
386 participants received sibutramine, and 130 received the placebo.
The study included counseling on dietary changes, increased physical activity, stress reduction, and monitoring food intake.
Participants on sibutramine typically lost weight (6.4kg), while those on the placebo usually gained weight (1.8kg).
Sibutramine users experienced rapid weight loss in the first eight months, maintaining weight thereafter. The main side effect reported was a rapid heart rate.
Approximately a quarter of the participants dropped out of the study, which lasted for one year only. There was no follow-up to assess the long-term benefits or potential harm of the drug, nor was weight change monitored post-study, making it challenging to determine if the weight loss was sustained.
7.3 Health Promotion
Health Belief Model (HBM)
Development and Purpose: Rosenstock (1974) developed the HBM to predict engagement in healthy behaviors aiming to prevent disease or its progression.
Fundamental Predictions:
Perceived Threat: Individuals will act if they believe that a negative health issue (like lung cancer due to smoking or diabetes due to obesity) can be avoided by taking recommended action and if they perceive this health threat as serious but relevant.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Engagement in healthy behavior depends on weighing perceived benefits against perceived barriers. These barriers may include financial, physical difficulty, or social impacts of behavior change.
Key Factors Considered in the HBM:
Perceived Threat: Recognizing the seriousness of potential health issues.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Weighing the pros and cons of behavior change.
Self-efficacy: Confidence in one's capability to perform a specific action. Self-efficacy influences motivation, perception, and performance.
Influence on Health Behavior:
Perceived Threat's Role: Research supports that perceived threat influences health behavior. External cues, such as fear-arousing information, play a vital role (e.g., anti-smoking campaigns).
Self-Efficacy: Bandura (1977) highlighted the importance of self-efficacy beliefs as predictors of an individual's perceived capability. It's based on past achievements, observations of others, social persuasion, and emotional states monitoring.
Unrealistic Optimism and its Factors (Weinstein, 1987):
Belief in Delayed Onset: If a problem has not occurred yet, individuals tend to believe it's unlikely to happen in the future.
Belief in Preventative Action: People think their actions can prevent potential health problems.
Belief in Rarity: Assuming that the problem is rare, leading to the belief that it's less likely to happen.
Limited or No Personal Experience: Lack of direct experience with the health issue contributes to underestimating the risks associated with it.
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1975):
Basic Assumption: People strive to maintain cognitive consistency and minimize psychological discomfort (dissonance) when faced with conflicting beliefs or behaviors.
Attitude-Relevant Information: Dissonance theory predicts that individuals are motivated to:
Attend information supporting their existing beliefs.
Avoid or ignore information contradicting their beliefs to prevent cognitive dissonance.
Criticisms of Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
Neglect of Emotional/Social Factors: Criticized for focusing solely on cognitive aspects and neglecting emotional or social influences in decision-making.
Stages of change model
Stages of Change Model (Prochaska et al., 1982):
Precontemplation: Not actively considering quitting an unhealthy behavior.
Contemplation: Aware of the issue but not committed to change.
Preparation: Seriously considering change, making initial attempts or adjustments.
Action: Taking steps to alter the behavior.
Maintenance: Sustaining the new behavior and preventing relapse.
Insights from Studies Regarding Stages of Change:
Smoking Cessation and Stages of Change (Prochaska et al., 1991):
Participants in the preparation stage smoked less, were less addicted, had higher self-efficacy, perceived higher costs of smoking, and had more quitting attempts.
Indicates that interventions targeting readiness to change can predict successful smoking cessation.
Weight Loss in Women (Hawkins et al., 2001):
Women in the preparation stage viewed weight loss positively and were more likely to consider it.
Friends' opinions about weight and a positive attitude toward weight loss were important predictors of change.
Challenges to Stages of Change Model (West and Sohal, 2006):
West and Sohal challenge the model by suggesting that many ex-smokers report quitting without prior planning.
Found unplanned attempts to quit were more successful for at least six months than planned attempts.
Propose a "catastrophe theory" suggesting smokers might react immediately to environmental cues, resulting in a more complete and sudden transformation compared to planned quitting.
Psychology of Human Relationships
Sociocultural Factors in Relationship Formation
Definition of Culture
Culture encompasses attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group and passed down through generations.
Shiraev and Levy (2004) define culture as a set of beliefs, values, superstitions, stereotypes, norms, customs, traditions, and fashions.
Sociocultural Events Influence Relationships:
Sociocultural events shape individuals' preferences in forming relationships.
Cultural dynamics impact who individuals are inclined to build connections with.
Components of Culture:
Attitudes:
Beliefs, encompassing political, religious, and moral perspectives.
Values that guide individuals' priorities and principles.
Superstitions and stereotypes influence perceptions.
Behaviors:
Norms dictate acceptable actions within a society.
Customs and traditions shape social interactions.
Fashions influence lifestyle choices and preferences.
Impact on Perception of Romantic Love:
Cultural norms and values influence how romantic love is perceived.
Defines societal expectations regarding the intensity and expression of romantic feelings.
Criteria for Attraction:
Cultural norms dictate what qualities are deemed attractive in a potential partner.
Influences preferences related to physical appearance, social status, and educational background.
Guidance on Relationship Initiation:
Cultural norms guide when individuals are expected to initiate romantic relationships.
Societal expectations regarding the appropriate timing for entering into romantic relations.
Role in Partner Selection:
Cultural values impact the characteristics considered desirable in a partner.
Shapes individuals' criteria for selecting a mate, including factors like personality, values, and social status.
Arranged Marriages and Cultural Influence:
Some cultures practice arranged marriages, emphasizing the role of societal expectations in relationship formation.
Reflects the influence of cultural norms on familial involvement in selecting partners.
Gender Roles and Relationship Dynamics:
Cultural expectations regarding gender roles impact power dynamics and division of labor within relationships.
Societal attitudes toward evolving gender roles can influence the nature of relationships.
Cultural Diversity in Relationships:
Sociocultural factors are crucial in intercultural relationships.
Managing cultural differences becomes a central aspect of relationship formation.
Cultural Variability in Attraction and Relationship Formation
Cross-Cultural Differences in Attractiveness:
Cunningham et al. (1995) observed cultural variations in the perception of attractive bodies.
Example: African American men found larger women more attractive than white men, highlighting cultural specificity in beauty standards.
Cross-Cultural Variances in Female Physical Attributes:
Swami et al. (2006) compared UK and Japanese perceptions of an attractive female body.
Findings: Japanese preferences differed significantly, emphasizing lower body mass indexes (BMI) and specific body shapes compared to Britons.
BMI as a Universal Determinant:
Swami and Tovee (2005) found BMI as the primary determinant of female physical attractiveness in both the UK and Malaysia.
Cultural Variation: Attractiveness preferences varied along a socioeconomic gradient, with urban participants favoring lower BMIs compared to rural counterparts.
Buss's Cross-Cultural Study on Relationship Formation:
Buss (1994) investigated factors in relationship formation across 37 cultures.
Universals: Men prefer younger mates, and women prefer older mates.
Cultural Differences: Varied importance placed on characteristics; e.g., virginity is highly valued in China, Taiwan, India, and Iran, but less so in Finland, Denmark, Sweden, France, and Germany.
Impact of Rural vs. Urban Contexts:
The importance of love in relationship formation may vary with the level of urbanization and survival pressures.
Lindholm's suggestion: In more rural communities where survival is a primary concern, love may be less important compared to other factors.
Globalization and Changing Cultural Constructs:
The spread of Western approaches to relationships worldwide is noted, possibly influenced by globalization.
Romantic love, while not universal, is becoming more widespread as cultures adopt aspects of Western relationship ideals.
Cultural Perspectives and Arranged Marriages
Passionate Love as Culturally Specific:
Goodwin (1995) argues that the notion of passionate love as a primary reason for forming serious relationships is culturally specific, particularly to Western cultures.
In more traditional societies, the emphasis is on loving the person one marries rather than marrying for passionate love.
Arranged Marriages as Sociocultural Norms:
In several cultures, arranged marriages are common, challenging the Western emphasis on passionate love as a basis for marriage.
Parents often play a central role in the decision-making process, sometimes presenting a range of potential partners for their child.
Lack of Individual Choice in Arranged Marriages:
In some cases of arranged marriages, the individuals involved may have little or no say in choosing their partners or deciding on the marriage.
The decision-making power often lies with parents or other family members.
Factors Contributing to Arranged Marriage Success:
In arranged marriages, the involvement of a third party (e.g., parents) is considered a factor contributing to their success.
Intellectual elements, along with emotional factors, play a role in decision-making.
Social Cues: Influences on Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior
Definition of Social Cues:
Social cues are visual or non-verbal characteristics in an environment that influence people's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Examples of Social Cues:
Body Language:
Gestures, postures, and movements that convey information without verbal communication.
Example: A person crossing their arms may indicate defensiveness or resistance.
Facial Expressions:
Emotional expressions are conveyed through changes in facial muscles.
Example: A smile indicates happiness or approval, while a frown may convey disapproval or sadness.
Biological Approach to Relationship Formation: Evolutionary Perspective
Assumptions:
Biological Influence on Relationship Formation:
Assumes that biological events significantly influence individuals' preferences in forming relationships.
Survival Purpose of Heterosexual Relationships:
Explains that heterosexual relationships serve a survival purpose by facilitating the transmission of the best possible genetic combinations to offspring.
Evolutionary Arguments for Heterosexuality:
Attraction as an Adaptive Function:
Attraction is viewed as a product of evolution, serving as an adaptive function for the survival and reproduction of the species.
Gender-Specific Preferences:
Males:
Generally prefer younger women.
Pay attention to physical details like teeth, lip color, hair length and shine, hip size, and skin smoothness—characteristics representing the ability to produce offspring.
Females:
Generally prefer older men.
Pay attention to characteristics like ambition, wealth, intelligence, social status, energy levels, and good health—traits associated with the ability to provide for offspring.
Genetic Point of View:
Attraction, according to this perspective, has evolved as a genetically encoded trait.
Similarities and Differences:
Similarities:
Both genders pay attention to the appearance of a potential mate.
Both sexes value traits like 'kindness' and 'intelligence.'
Differences:
Males and females exhibit gender-specific preferences based on evolutionary needs for reproductive success.
Empirical Support:
The gender differences in attraction are supported by large-scale cross-cultural surveys, such as those conducted by Buss (1994, 1995).
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Genes in Relationship Formation
Assumption:
The attraction between individuals is influenced by the combination of their genes, to produce healthy offspring.
Evidence for Assumption:
Attraction to pheromones carried in sweat, containing information about a person's immune system.
Assumption: Genetically different immune systems complement each other, potentially resulting in offspring with a robust immune system.
Role of MHC Genes:
Control of Immunological Self on-Self Discrimination:
MHC genes control immunological self-self discrimination, tissue rejection, and immune recognition of infectious diseases.
Importance for Health:
MHC genes play a crucial role in ensuring individuals stay healthy by regulating immune responses.
Sexual Selection and MHC Genes:
Avoiding Inbreeding:
MHC genes are assumed to be the product of sexual selection, aiming to improve the immune system of offspring and prevent inbreeding.
Studies on Mice:
Studies in house mice suggest that both males and females prefer mates with MHC-dissimilar genes, recognized through odor cues.
Studies in Humans:
Human studies, including those by Wedekind and Penn (2000), found associations between MHC-associated odors and mating preferences.
Cognitive Health Connection:
Facial symmetry is linked to greater cognitive health, with symmetry indicating the reliability and precision of developmental processes (Penke et al., 2009).
Supports the bodily integrity hypothesis, suggesting a correlation between scoring well on cognitive ability tests and a general tendency for overall body systems to be efficient and healthy (Deary, 2012).
Associations with Physical Health:
Facial symmetry is not only an indicator of cognitive health but is also associated with better physical health.
The bodily cues provided by facial symmetry may offer insights into both cognitive and physical well-being.
The Golden Ratio:
Facial symmetry has been suggested to be linked with the mathematical concept of the 'golden ratio.'
The golden ratio refers to pleasing and harmonious proportions that adhere to a specific mathematical equation.
The complexity of Achieving Symmetry:
Achieving facial symmetry is a complex task during human growth, involving billions of cell reproductions while maintaining a parallel structure.
Facial symmetry is considered a visible signal of genetic health, as it reflects successful and precise developmental processes.
Biological Origins and Cross-Cultural Consistency:
Perceiving facial symmetry has a clear cognitive element and is cross-cultural, suggesting biological origins.
The universality of appreciating facial symmetry across cultures indicates a shared, biologically rooted perception.
Limitations:
While facial symmetry is considered an indicator of attractiveness, there are cross-cultural differences in beauty standards.
Cultural factors can influence what is perceived as beautiful, emphasizing the interplay between biological and cultural influences.
Ovulation and Its Influence on Attractiveness: Research Insights
Impact of Ovulation on Women's Attractiveness:
Ovulation is believed to influence women's preferences in men and their physical appearance, impacting their attractiveness to prospective partners.
Concealed Ovulation in Humans:
Unlike some other mammals, human females conceal ovulation, giving them more control over reproduction.
Concealing ovulation allows females to have more control and potentially cheat on mates without being detected during ovulation.
The role of cognitive factors in the formation of relationships
Halo Effect:
Definition:
The false correlation of positive characteristics, assuming that someone with a few positive traits possesses many positive characteristics.
Association with Physical Attractiveness:
The halo effect is sometimes linked to physical attractiveness, where people may assume that physically attractive individuals possess other positive traits.
Perceptions of Benefits and Rewards in Relationships: Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory (SET):
Basic Assumption: Relationships are maintained through continuous cost-benefit analysis.
Balance Requirement: Balance between partners' investments and returns is crucial for relationship stability.
Dependence on Perception: SET involves the perception of imbalances and inequality, which is subjective to individual viewpoints.
Student A study Carlson et al. (2014):
Focus: Analyzed data on housework and sexual frequency from the 2006 Marital and Relationship Survey.
Participants: 600 married and cohabiting low to moderate-income couples with children.
Findings:
Equal Housework and Sexual Frequency:
Couples sharing routine housework equally reported the highest sexual frequency (7.74 times a month).
Higher satisfaction and quality of the sexual relationship in these couples.
Gender Equality and Intimacy:
Changing Gender Roles: Men participating in housework and childcare are seen as fair.
Increased Intimacy: Perception of fairness in cost-benefit analysis leads to increased intimacy in Western societies.
Role of Expectations:
Traditional vs. Non-Traditional Expectations:
Traditional marriages may have different expectations regarding roles and contributions.
Clear roles in traditional settings may provide a framework for perceived fairness.
Norway Divorce Rates:
Traditional Roles vs. Gender Equality:
Despite Norway's gender equality, couples with more traditional roles had lower divorce rates.
Suggests that clarity in roles and expectations aligns with perceived fairness.
Empowerment through Workforce Participation:
Statistical Trends (Office for National Statistics, 2013):
The employment rate of women aged 16 to 64 rose from 53% in 1971 to 66% in 2012.
Concurrently, there has been a decline in employment for men.
Factors Influencing Sociocultural Change:
Rise of the Service Sector:
Shift from heavy industry to the service sector, favoring opportunities for women.
Women actively developing careers in diverse fields.
Impact on Relationships:
Career development requires time and energy, potentially delaying serious or long-term relationships.
Pressure on women due to biological time constraints related to fertility.
Men, not facing the same fertility decline, may feel less urgency to commit in the early stages of a relationship.
Relationship Dynamics: Early vs. Later Stages:
Early Stages:
Women may feel pressure to manage both careers and the desire to have children.
Men may perceive less urgency regarding commitment due to a lack of similar biological time constraints.
Later Stages:
Increased financial independence for women.
Accumulation of financial capital, such as shared property ownership.
Women are more capable of supporting themselves outside marriage.
Impact on Freedom of Choice:
Women have more freedom of choice in later relationship stages:
Financial independence.
Easier and cheaper divorce options.
Less Stigma for Divorce in Western Cultures
Introduction of No-Fault Divorce:
Initiated in some US states in the 1950s.
Couples were no longer required to prove fault; citing a broken-down marriage was sufficient.
By 1970, most US states adopted laws allowing no-fault divorces.
Impact on Divorce Rates:
Divorce Rates in the US:
1940-1965: The divorce rate remained near ten divorces for every 1000 married women.
1979: The rate increased to 20 divorces for every 1000 married women.
Factors Contributing to Increased Divorce Rates:
Adoption of no-fault divorce laws.
Changing societal attitudes toward divorce.
Changing Societal Influences
Decline of Religious Influence:
Religion's diminished role in influencing relationship decisions.
Couples are more likely to seek divorce when facing challenges.
Legal Relaxations:
Legal changes making divorce more accessible.
Impact on Stigma
Reduced Stigma:
No-fault divorce reduces the stigma associated with divorce.
Couples can choose divorce without attributing blame to one party.
Attitude Shifts:
Changing societal attitudes towards divorce.
Divorce becomes a more acceptable option for couples facing challenges.
Group Dynamics
Inclusive Fitness
Definition:
The ability of an individual organism to pass on its genes to the next generation.
Consider direct descendants and shared genes of close relatives.
Explanation:
Enhances evolutionary success by promoting the reproduction and survival of genetically similar individuals.
Underpins kin selection theory, emphasizing intragroup cooperation as an adaptation.
Intragroup Cooperation and Kin Selection
Behavioral Adaptations:
Individuals engage in behaviors benefiting their ingroup, even at personal cost.
Motivation to help genetically similar individuals within the group.
Kin selection theory suggests intragroup cooperation as an evolutionary adaptation.
Intergroup Competitiveness
Alternative Adaptation:
Intergroup competitiveness is considered an adaptation.
Non-human primates exhibit sensitivity to social hierarchies and group distinctions.
Competitiveness is observed in more primitive species, responding to situational factors.
Examples from Non-Human Primates:
Primate Behavior:
Non-human primates show sensitivity to individual rankings within groups.
Recognition of social category fault lines, distinguishing between ingroup and outgroups.
Primitive Species and Competitiveness:
Sensitivity to Situational Factors:
Primitive species, such as beetle larvae and cockroaches, exhibit competitiveness.
Sensitivity to situational factors, including the number of potential competitors.
Social Identity Theory (SIT)
Conceptual Framework
Developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979).
Assumes natural division of social environment into ingroups (us) and outgroups (them or the other).
Social Categorization:
Reduction of Differences:
Reduces perceived differences within the ingroup.
Reduces perceived differences in the outgroup.
Increases perceived differences between the ingroup and outgroup.
Category Accentuation Effect:
Exaggeration of Differences:
Exaggeration of ingroup and outgroup differences.
Accentuation of intragroup similarities.
Social Identity Process:
Assimilation:
Individuals assimilate into their group by adopting the group's identity.
Behave in ways consistent with group behavior.
The group becomes the person's ingroup.
Social Comparison:
Identification and Comparison:
Individuals categorize themselves within a group.
Compare their ingroup with another group (outgroup).
Positive distinctiveness for self-esteem enhancement.
Ethnocentrism:
Ingroup Bias:
Positive behaviors of ingroup attributed to dispositional factors.
Negative behaviors of ingroup attributed to situational factors.
Positive behaviors of outgroup attributed to situational factors.
Negative behaviors of outgroup attributed to dispositional factors.
Stereotyping:
Fixed Images:
Fixed and oversimplified images of individuals or groups.
Occurs when individuals are perceived as members of an outgroup.
Assumes shared characteristics among outgroup members.
Perceptions of Group Homogeneity:
Linked to Social Identity:
Stereotypes are influenced by social identity processes.
Group homogeneity perceptions apply to both ingroups and outgroups.
Group Dynamics:
Definition:
System of behaviors and psychological processes within social ingroups.
Study applicable to understanding prosocial behavior, prejudice, discrimination, and violence.
Intragroup and Intergroup Dynamics:
Ingroups and outgroups are defined through comparisons and contrasts.
Cooperation and Social Identity Theory (SIT)
Cooperation:
Definition: A prosocial process where individuals work together for mutual benefit.
Contrast with Competition:
Competition: Individuals work toward selfish, non-shareable goals.
Cooperation usually occurs within ingroups as an intragroup process.
Enhancement of Organized Groups:
Shared group identity increases cooperative behavior (Brewer, 2008).
The viability of organized groups is boosted when members act to enhance group functioning (Tyler & Blader, 2000).
Two Types of Basic Cooperative Behavior:
Mandatory (Required) Behaviors:
Specified for particular roles in a group.
Originates from the group or group leader.
Discretionary (Non-Required) Behaviors:
Goes beyond required actions.
Originates from a group member, not the group.
SIT's Role in Ingroup Cooperation:
Individuals cooperate with their group as long as it provides a positive social identity.
If not, individuals might be tempted to change group membership (Doosje et al., 1999).
Ongoing cognitive process: Constantly measuring perceived group quality and the extent of being considered a group member.
The link between group success and maintaining a positive self-identity.
Identification and Ingroup Cooperation:
Identification Definition: The degree to which people merge their sense of self with the group.
Higher identification leads to:
Greater willingness to act cooperatively.
More investment in working toward group success (mandatory and discretionary behavior).
Competitive Behavior and Comparison Concerns:
Definition of Competition:
The presence of socially comparative groups triggers competitive behavior (Festinger, 1954).
Social comparison theory suggests individuals are driven to improve their performance and minimize discrepancies with others (Garcia et al., 2013).
Comparison Concerns:
Prime Motivator:
Garcia et al. (2013) emphasize that comparison concerns drive competitive behavior.
Defined as the desire to achieve or maintain a 'superior relative position.'
Note: This notion implies a perception of a superior relative position rather than an absolute one.
Factors Influencing Comparison Concerns:
Relevance of Performance Dimension:
Tesser (1988) indicates that competitiveness increases with the relevance of the activity to the individual.
Degree of Similarity to the Target:
Kilduff et al. (2010) find that competitiveness rises with greater similarity to the rival.
Closeness to the Target:
Pleban and Tesser (1981) reveal that competitiveness increases with the proximity of the individual to their rival.
Prejudice and discrimination
Definitions:
Prejudice: Unjustified, usually negative thoughts and feelings based on perceived group membership.
Discrimination: Negative behavior based on perceived group membership.
Components and Manifestation:
Prejudice has cognitive and affective components, while discrimination is the behavioral expression.
Prejudice doesn't always translate into behavior; individuals may hold prejudicial views without acting on them.
Understanding Conflict and Resolving Disputes
Introduction:
Definition: Peace psychology is an academic field focused on understanding and addressing conflicts within groups, aiming to achieve sustainable peace through non-violent methods.
Scope: Encompasses psychological dynamics, politics, diplomacy, military and economic considerations, and sociocultural, international, and national structures affecting peace.
Biological Perspectives:
Inclusive fitness and kin selection theory suggest instinctive ingroup favoritism, fostering intergroup competition and intragroup cooperation.
Sociocultural Dynamics:
Social Identity Theory (SIT) by Tajfel emphasizes the natural division of the social environment into ingroups and outgroups.
Social categorization reduces perceived differences within ingroups and exaggerates differences between ingroups and outgroups (category accentuation effect).
Ethnocentrism, an ingroup-serving bias, can be explained by SIT.
Cognitive Perspectives:
Social Comparison: Individuals enhance self-esteem by positively perceiving their ingroup and negatively perceiving other groups.
Taylor and Moriarty (1987) demonstrate how physical distinctiveness along racial lines plays a crucial role in conflict origins.
Stereotype Content Model (SCM):
SCM shows the correlation between perceived status of outgroups, perceived competence, and competition. Outgroups are seen as warm when not competing with ingroups.
Social Dominance Orientation (SDO):
A personality trait where individuals prefer maintaining or increasing group differences, indicating a preference for hierarchies in social systems.
Approaches to Resolving Conflict
Recognition of Group Allegiance: Acknowledging that group allegiance can lead to intergroup conflict.
Understanding Group Identity: Recognizing the power of group identity, often referred to as the 'collective self.'
Building Peace Structures: Establishing and maintaining structures that promote peace and social responsibility, including physical and cultural aspects.
Prosocial behavior
1. Definition and Motivation:
Prosocial Behavior: Actions that benefit others or have positive social consequences.
Altruism: Motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare (Batson, 1991).
Critique: Some argue that all human behavior ultimately seeks personal pleasure, challenging the existence of true altruism.
2. Sociocultural Factors:
Cultural Influence: Bystanderism studies consider economic development and cultural notions (e.g., simpatia).
Diffusion of Responsibility: Bystander behavior is influenced by the number of people present (Darley & Latané, 1968).
3. Cognitive and Emotional Factors:
Social Identity Theory: People naturally categorize the social world into groups, influencing prosocial behavior.
Decision-Making Process (Latané & Darley, 1970):
Notice the situation.
Appraise it as an emergency.
Develop feelings of responsibility.
Believe in having the skills to succeed.
Reach a conscious decision to help.
Empathy-Altruism Model (Batson, 1991):
Empathetic concern: Tenderness, compassion, sympathy.
Emotional and motivational components influence prosocial behavior.
4. Biological Factors:
Evolutionary Perspective: Genes are central, promoting survival and reproduction.
Inclusive Fitness: Ability to pass on genes to the next generation, considering direct and shared genes of close relatives.
Kin Selection Theory: Prosocial behavior as an adaptive response for increasing group and individual survival.
Empirical Support: Studies with animals (e.g., vampire bats, squirrels) and humans (Madsen et al., 2007) show kin selection in action.
Circumstantial Cues: Biological relatedness moderated by shared developmental environment, familiarity, and social bonding (Sherman et al., 1997).
5. Comparison: Empathy-Altruism vs. Kin Selection:
Empathy-Altruism: Cognitive focus, internal psychological processes.
Limited applicability to animal research due to the lack of cognitive insight.
Focus on day-to-day events rather than extreme situations.
Kin Selection: Evolutionary theory focuses on biological reasons for altruistic behavior.
Assumes animals' behavior informs understanding of human behavior.
Focus on extreme events threatening individual and group survival.
Complementary Nature: Both theories can complement each other, addressing different aspects of prosocial behavior.
Cognitive processes outlined in empathy-altruism likely result from evolutionary processes.