HUBS 191 final

Astrocytes

Astrocytes

star shaped glial cell that supplies nutrients and is the first responder to injuries

Microglia

CNS immune cells

Ependyrnal cells

Have cillia to move fluid around fluid filled regions

Ogliodendrocytes

Creates myelin sheathes in the CNS

Somatic efferent

made up of 2 myelinated neuron’s where the effector is skeletal muscle cells

Autonomic efferent

made up of 3 neurons and is both myelinated and unmyelinated

Parasympathetic

rest and digest system, long neuron 2 and short neuron 3, neurotransmitter is ACh, bodies at the cranial and sacral level

Sympathetic

fight or flight respons, short neuron 2 and long neuron 3, neurotransmitter is norepinephrine, bodies between T1 and L2

Dorsal spinal cord

Afferent side

Ventral spinal cord

Efferent side

Dorsal root ganglion

made up of unipolar cell bodies

Dorsal Ramus

dorsal branch that carries information too and from the dorsal side

Ventral Ramus

ventral branch that carries information too and from the ventral side

Rami commincans

sympathetic chain ganglion between T1 and L2

Falx cerebri

sickle shaped dural fold separating the cerebrum’s hemispheres

Falx Ceribelli

sickle-shaped dural fold separating the cerebellums hemispheres

Tentorium ceribelli

tent shaped dural fold laterally separating the cerebrum and cerebellum

Lateral ventricle

2 hook like ventricles located one in each cerebral hemisphere

3rd ventricle

tube ventricle connecting the lateral ventricle to the cerebral aquaduct, this is located at the level of teh diencephalon

Cerebral aquaduct

triangle shaped ventricle connecting the 3rd and 4th ventricles

4th ventricle

ventricle that sits at the level of the cerebellum and connects to the central canal

central canal

space that runs through the spinal cord to circulate cerebrospinal fluid

choroid plexus

a non-neuronal tissue found in the ventricular system for the production of cerebrospinal fluid

commisural tract

axons cross the cortex allowing for inter-hemisphere communication

association tract

axons stay within one hemisphere

projection tract

axons leave the cortex

Stretch reflex

simplest neural circuit where a stimulus stretches the stretch receptors in the muscle spindle causing the opposite movement to occur

proprioceptors

provide continual information to the brain about where the body is in space

cerebellum

plans, learns, and executes motor programmes

tactile receptors

touch and vibration

water soluble hormones

small chain peptides and Catecholamines

lipid soluble hormone

Steroids and thyroid hormones are modified amino acids, involved in gene activation

pancreas

exocrine gland that is the receptor and control centre for blood glucose homeostasis

beta cells

Secrete insulin

alpha cells

Secrete Glucagon

insulin

lower blood glucose levels through the formation of glycogen and fats

glucagon

increases glucose through the break up of glycogen and the synthesis of ketones and glucose

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

made by the posterior pituitary gland, increases water reabsorption in the kidneys

Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GH-RH)

released by hypothalamus to stimulate the anterior pituitary gland G

Growth hormone

Released by the anterior pituitary gland, impacts metabolism, and growth and repair

Somatomedin C (IGF-1)

released by liver to inhibit the release of GH-RH and stimulate the release of GH-IH

Growth Hormone Inhibitor (GH-IH)

released by hypothalamus to inhibit the release of GH

Thyraglobulin Protein (TGB)

initial form of TH that is Thyrosin rich

T3

active form of thyrosin

T4

inactive most abundent form of thyrosin

Thyroid binding globulin (TBG)

T3’s carrier protein

thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

released by the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary gland T

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

released by the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates teh thyroid

Effects of T3

negative feedback to inhibit the release of TSH and TRH

increase in body heat, fat synthesis, protein and carbohydrate breakdown

increases synthesis and activity of na/k pumps which increases the basal metabolic rate

where does calcium come from

osteoclastic break down of CaCO3 in the bones, diet

exits through osteoblastic formation of bone and through urine

Parathyroid Hormone

released by the parathyroid gland to increase osteoclastic activity and calcium reabsorption and convert vitamin D into calcitriol

Calcitriol

formed from vitamin D, increases calcium absorption in the gut

Adrenaline

can be hormonal or a neurotransmitter, synthesised and released by the adrenal medulla, increases glycogen and fat breakdown

Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

released by the hypothalamus to stimulate the anterior pituitary gland C

Adrenocorticotropin Hormone (ACTH)

released by the anterior pituitary gland to stimulate the adrenal cortex

Cortisol

made and released by the adrenal cortex after an ACTH signal is received

increases muscle and fat break down and glucose synthesis

decreases glucose uptake

Alarm phase

fight or flight can last up to hours or days, mainly adrenalin

Resistance phase

when stress lasts longer than hours to days, retention of salt and water by the kidneys, mainly cortisol

Exhaustion phase

when stressor lasts weeks to years, ion concentrations not in balance making this stage potentially fatal from heart failure

Addison’s Disease

autoimmune

hypo secretion of cortisol and aldosterone

increased melanin, low blood pressure and weakness

Cushing’s Disease

cortisol hypersecretion

usually from tumors

increased fat breakdown, moon face, buffalo hump

increased blood pressure and muscle wasting

infantile hypothyrodism

mothers diet has insufficient iodine during pregnancy and/or breastfeeding

mental and physical delays, cold intolerant, low metabolism

Iodine deficiency disorder / simple goiter

hyposecreation of thyroid hormone low iodine levels leading to an enlarged thyroid

graves disorder

autoimmune disorder, hugh metabolic rate and weight loss, hypersecreation of thyroid hormone

hyperparathyroidism

usually from a tumor, soft brittle bones, kidney stones

hypercalcaemia

decreased excitability of neurons and muscles, muscle weakness, slowed reflexes

hypocalcaemia

increased excitability of neurons and muscle cells leading to spasms cramos and tremors

Type 1 diabetes

hyposecreation of insulin due to destruction of the beta cells

type 2 diabetes

hyposensetivity of target cells to insulin due to prolonged high blood sugars

symptoms of diabetes

glucose in urine, thirst, increased urine output, nerve and eye damage

C vertebrae

First 5 vertebrae

T vertebrae Thoracic

6th-18th vertebrae

L lumbar vertebrae

19th-26th vertebrae

lacunae

lakes where osteocytes found

canaliculi

links Lacunae’s

Plane Joint

sliding and gliding

Hinge Joint

flexion and extension movement

Pivot Joint

Rotation movement

Condylar Joint

Flexion and extension, Rotation when flexed

Ellipsoid Joint

flexion and extension, abduction and adduction

Saddle Joint

flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, opposition

Ball and Socket Joint

flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, rotation

Chondrocytes

Mature cartilage cells

Cartilage

made of collagen and ground substance, compression encourages diffusion

Hyaline cartilage

protects bones at points of articulation

Fibrocartilage

Mainly collagen bundles with some ground substance, shock absorbing

Dense Fibrous connective tissue

limited ground substance, elastin and collagen

Fibroclasts

Growth cells

Fibrocytes

Mature cells

Ligaments

bone-bone, mainly collagen with some elastine

Tendons

bone to muscle, less elastine than ligaments

Medial Collateral ligament

femur-tibia, restricts abduction

Lateral collateral ligament

femur-fibular, restricts adduction

Anterior Cruciate ligament

Anterior of tibia to posterior of femur, restricts posterior displacement

Posterior Cruciate Ligament

posterior of tibia to Anterior of femur, restricts Anterior displacement

Endomysium

Connective tissue surrounding each Muscle fibre

Perimysium

Connective tissue surrounding muscle fasicicles

Epimysium

Connective tissue surround the muscle

Myofibrils

Fibres that make up a muscle fibre

Sarcomeres

Repeating units that make up a myofibril