Psych Exam

Empiricism

The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should therefore rely on observation and experimentation.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind.

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Humanistic Psychology

The historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Introspection

The examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings, which relies exclusively on observation of one's mental state; in a spiritual context it may refer to the examination of one's soul.

Mary Whiton Calkins

first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)

Charles Darwin

Evolution by "natural selection" (the weaker die out) wrote On the Origin of Species

Dorothea Dix

Rights activist on behalf of mentally ill patients - created first wave of US mental asylums

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Stanley Hall

American psychologist who established first American research lab and American Psychological Association.

William James

Wrote the first psychology textbook

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

Carl Rogers

Humanistic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

B. F. Skinner

behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd president of the APA (1921)

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

environment

every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effoct of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Lesion

Tissue destruction; Naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan

A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure (also called CAT scan)

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue; These scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. These scans show brain function as well as its structure.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem and thalamus that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance

Limbic System

Doughnut shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amydgala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Parietal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal Lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, speaking

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split Brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Consiousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processes on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

dendrite

the busy, branchlike extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

A junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron with generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within" -natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs such as the heart - its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in time of stress

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes.

Nature-Nurture Issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of the two.

Levels of Analysis

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Biological Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.

Experimental Psychology

The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.

Psychodynamic Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

Behavioral Psychology

The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Cognitive Psychology

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.