PSYCH NOTES UNIT 4

Attributions

The processes by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events.

Dispositional attributions

Attributions that ascribe behavior to internal factors, such as personality traits, attitudes, or character.

Situational attributions

Attributions that ascribe behavior to external factors, such as the environment, social influences, or circumstances.

Actor/observer bias

Tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors while attributing others' actions to dispositional factors.

Fundamental attribution error

Tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining the behavior of others

Self-serving bias

Tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors (e.g., one's own abilities) and negative outcomes to external factors (e.g., bad luck or situational influences).

Explanatory style

A person's habitual way of explaining the events of their lives.

Optimistic explanatory style

A way of explaining events in a positive manner. This style is associated with better mental health and resilience.

Pessimistic explanatory style

A way of explaining events in a negative manner. This style is associated with higher risks of depression and helplessness.

Mere exposure effect

Phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

Halo effect

A cognitive bias that occurs when an initial positive judgment about a person unconsciously colors the perception of the individual as a whole

Internal locus of control

The belief that one has control over their own life and outcomes are a result of their own actions and decisions.

External locus of control

The belief that external forces, such as fate, luck, or other people, have control over one's life and outcomes.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that causes the belief to become true.

Social comparison

The process of comparing oneself to others to evaluate one's own abilities, opinions, and overall self-worth.

Upward social comparison

Comparing oneself to someone who is perceived to be better off or superior in some way.

Downward social comparison

Comparing oneself to someone who is perceived to be worse off or inferior in some way.

Relative deprivation

The perception that one is worse off compared to others, leading to feelings of discontent and resentment.

Cognitive load

The total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory. High cognitive load can make it difficult to process information and can impact decision-making and performance.

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are automatic, unconscious, and not easily controlled; can influence behavior/judgments without conscious awareness.

Stereotype

A widely held but fixed and oversimplified belief or idea about a particular group of people. Stereotypes can be positive or negative.

Prejudice

A preconceived opinion or feeling, usually negative, toward a person or group of people based on their membership in a particular group. Prejudice is often based on stereotypes and can lead to discrimination.

Discrimination

Unfair or unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group.

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. This bias can lead to victim-blaming, where individuals assume that bad things happen to people because of their own actions or characteristics.

In-group bias

The tendency to favor members of one's own group over those in other groups. This bias can lead to preferential treatment of in-group members and discrimination against out-group members.

Out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to view members of an out-group as more similar to each other than members of one's in-group. This bias can lead to stereotyping and generalizations about out-group members.

Ethnocentrism

The belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture. Ethnocentrism often leads to viewing other cultures from the perspective of one's own and judging them as inferior.

Belief perseverance

The tendency to hold on to one's beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence. This cognitive bias can make it difficult to change one's views even when presented with new information.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. This bias can lead to reinforcing existing views and ignoring or dismissing contradictory information.

Cognitive dissonance

The psychological discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes. Cognitive dissonance can lead to changes in attitudes or behavior to reduce the discomfort and achieve consistency.

Social norms

The implicit or explicit rules that a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members.

Social influence theory

The theory that individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others. This influence can take the form of conformity, compliance, or obedience.

Normative social influence

The influence of others that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them. This often results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily private acceptance.

Informational social influence

The influence of others that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior. This is especially common in ambiguous or uncertain situations and can lead to private acceptance of the group's norms.

Persuasion

The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

Theory of how persuasion works, proposing that there are two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route. The route taken depends on the individual's level of involvement and motivation to process the message.

Central route

Method of persuasion that involves deeply processing the content of the message. This route is taken when individuals are motivated and able to think critically about the arguments presented, leading to long-lasting attitude change.

Peripheral route

Method of persuasion that involves other aspects of the message including the characteristics of the person imparting the message (such as attractiveness, credibility), or the presentation of the message itself. This route is taken when individuals are not motivated to process the message deeply, leading to temporary attitude change.

Foot-in-the-door technique

Persuasion strategy in which a person makes a small request that is likely to be accepted, followed by a larger request. The initial compliance creates a sense of commitment, making it more likely that the person will comply with the larger request.

Door-in-the-face technique

Persuasion strategy in which a person makes a large request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller request. The second, smaller request is more likely to be accepted because it seems more reasonable in comparison to the first request.

Conformity

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms. Conformity is influenced by the desire to fit in and be accepted.

Obedience

Compliance with an order, request, or law, or submission to another's authority.

Individualism

Cultural orientation in which the individual is prioritized over the group. In individualistic societies, personal goals, independence, and self-reliance are valued more than group goals or conformity.

Collectivism

Cultural orientation in which the group is prioritized over the individual. In collectivist societies, community, interdependence, and social harmony are valued, and individuals often see themselves as part of a larger group.

Multiculturalism

Perspective that recognizes, values, and promotes the diversity of cultures within a society.

Group polarization

The tendency for group discussion to intensify the initial leanings of the members. After discussing, the group's attitudes and decisions tend to be more extreme than those held by individual members before discussion.

Groupthink

A phenomenon that occurs when a group values harmony and coherence over accurate analysis and critical evaluation. It leads to poor decision-making as dissenting opinions are suppressed in favor of consensus.

Diffusion of responsibility

A phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to take action or feel responsible when others are present.

Bystander effect

Phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present. The probability of help is inversely related to the number of bystanders.

Social loafing

Tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Deindividuation

Psychological state characterized by a loss of self-awareness and a sense of diminished personal responsibility, often leading to behavior that is uncharacteristic of the individual. It often occurs in groups or crowds.

Social facilitation

Tendency for people to perform better on tasks when in the presence of others.

False consensus effect

Tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. This bias leads individuals to assume that their views are more common than they actually are.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that require the cooperation of two or more groups to achieve.

Social traps

A conflict of interest where individuals or a group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the larger group as a whole.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others. This behavior is motivated by a desire to help others without expecting anything in return.

Prosocial behavior

Voluntary behavior intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, and comforting.

Social debt

The obligation to repay others for the help and support they have provided. It is a sense of indebtedness that can motivate prosocial behavior.

Social reciprocity norm

The expectation that one wil respond to a positive action with another positive action, thus rewarding kind actions. This norm promotes mutual help and cooperation.

Social responsibility norm

Societal rule that people should help those who need assistance, even if they wil not receive anything in return. It emphasizes the duty to help others based on moral principles.

Psychodynamic theory

Psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.

Unconscious mind

Part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not accessible to conscious awareness.

Preconscious mind

Part of the mind that contains thoughts and feelings that are not currently in conscious awareness but can be brought to consciousness with effort. It acts as a bridge between the conscious and unconscious mind.

Unconscious processes

Mental processes that occur outside of conscious awareness.

Ego defense mechanisms

Strategies used unconsciously by the ego to manage anxiety and protect itself from distressing thoughts and feelings.

-denial

-displacement

-projection

-rationalization

-reaction formation

-regression

-repression

-sublimation

Projective tests

Assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses that reveal aspects of one's personality and unconscious mind.

Humanistic theory

Psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual. It focuses on concepts such as free will, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people.

Unconditional regard

Humanistic concept where an individual is treated with unconditional respect and acceptance, regardless of their behavior.

Self-actualizing tendency

Humanistic concept; a person's innate drive to realize their full potential and achieve their highest level of functioning.

Social-cognitive theory

Psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of cognitive processes (such as thinking, memory, and interpretation).

Reciprocal determinism

States that behavior, personal factors, and environmental factors all influence each other in a continuous loop.

Self-concept

Individual's overall perception of themselves; includes beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge about abilities, appearance, and behavior.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's ability to successfully perform specific tasks or achieve goals.

Self-esteem

Overall evaluation of one's worth or value; how much an individual values themselves; influenced by self-concept and self-efficacy.

Trait theories

Focus on identifying and measuring individual traits, which are consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Big Five theory

Widely accepted model of personality; includes five dimensions that represent the core structure of personality.

-agreeableness

-openness to experience

- extraversion

-conscientiousness

-neuroticism (emotional instability)

Personality inventories

Standardized questionnaires or surveys designed to assess an individual's personality traits (e.g. Big Five, Meyers-Briggs)

Factor analysis

Statistical method used to identify clusters or patterns of related variables. In personality psychology, factor analysis is used to identify the underlying factors (traits) that explain the correlations among different behaviors or attributes.

Drive-reduction theory

Suggests that behavior is motivated by the need to reduce drives, which are physiological states of tension or arousal caused by biological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst).

Homeostasis

Tendency of the body to maintain a stable, balanced internal environment (e.g. temperature, blood sugar levels, and hydration).

Arousal theory

Proposes that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, or mental and physical alertness.

Yerkes-Dodson law

Principle that states that performance improves with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a certain point.

Self-determination theory (SDT)

Emphasizes intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior.

Intrinsic motivation

One pursues activity for the inherent satisfaction or enjoyment it provides, rather than for external rewards.

Extrinsic motivation

One pursues activity not for the enjoyment of the activity itself but to achieve some external reward or avoid punishment.

Incentive theory

Suggests that behavior is driven by external rewards or incentives (e.g. money, praise, or status).

Instincts

Innate, fixed patterns of behavior that are unlearned and often species-specific.

Lewin's motivational conflicts theory

Explains how individuals experience conflicting motivations when they are faced with multiple choices.

-approach-approach conflicts

-approach-avoidance conflicts

-avoidance-avoidance conflicts

Sensation-seeking theory

Suggests that individuals are motivated by the need to seek out stimulating, novel, and exciting experiences.

-thrill-seeking

-disinhibition

-boredom susceptibility

Ghrelin

Hormone produced primarily in the stomach that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger.

Leptin

Hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Hypothalamus

Regulates various bodily functions (e.g. hunger and thirst) through monitoring hormone levels.

Pituitary gland

Controls the release of hormones that regulate other glands in the body; the "master gland"

Emotion (affect)

Refers to a complex psychological state that involves physiological, cognitive, and behavioral responses to external or internal stimuli. It can include feelings such as happiness, anger, sadness, or fear, and is typically accompanied by physiological changes (e.g., increased heart rate) and cognitive interpretations of the situation.

Internal factors

Personal, intrinsic influences that can affect emotional responses (e.g. biological makeup, mood, personality traits) which all contribute to how emotions are felt and expressed.

External factors

Environmental or situational stimuli that can trigger emotions (e.g. social interactions, events, physical surroundings).

Physiological experiences

Bodily changes that occur when an emotion is felt, such as increased heart rate, sweating, muscle tension, or changes in respiration

Cognitive experiences

Mental processes involved in interpreting and making sense of emotional experiences. This includes how we perceive, evaluate, and label emotional stimuli, and how our thoughts influence the intensity and expression of emotions.

Cognitive label

Refers to the process by which individuals label or interpret their physiological arousal. For example, the same physical symptoms of arousal (e.g., fast heartbeat) can be interpreted as excitement or fear depending on the individual's cognitive appraisal of the situation.

Facial-feedback hypothesis

Theory suggesting that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences. For example, smiling can make a person feel happier, and frowning can increase feelings of sadness.