Parts of Speech

Nouns

• Definition: A word used to name a person, place, or thing.

• Common Nouns: General names, e.g., pencil, dog, car, lunch, mother.

• Proper Nouns: Specific names of people, places, things, and ideas, e.g., Susan, Germany, Christianity, Western province.

• Collective Nouns: Words that group specific items, animals, or people, e.g., a group of cows is called a herd, a group of fish is called a school.

• Abstract Nouns: Nouns that cannot be physically held or seen, e.g., kindness, happiness.

Pronouns

• Definition: Words that replace nouns to avoid repetition, e.g., he, she, I, they.

Adjectives

• Definition: Words that describe nouns, e.g., rusty, happy, beautiful, old.

Verbs

• Definition: Action words, e.g., walk, run, skip.

• Auxiliary Verbs: Support the main verb, e.g., have, has, do, am, is, are, could.

Adverbs

• Definition: Words that modify action verbs, e.g., "She clumsily knocked the teacup over" (clumsily modifies knocked).

Conjunctions

• Definition: Words that join other words and phrases, e.g., because, therefore, however.

Figures of Speech

• Figurative Language: Saying one thing but meaning something else.

• Literal Language: Meaning exactly what is said.

• Simile: Comparing two things using "like" or "as".

• Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things.

• Metaphor: Direct comparison between two unlike things without using "like" or "as", e.g., "She is a bubble in a bottle of Appletiser."

• Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words, e.g., "Seven Snakes Slithered Silently."

• Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds, e.g., "ClAp your hAnds And stAmp your feet!"

• Onomatopoeia: Words that sound like the actions or objects they refer to, e.g., the bells clanged and jingled.

• Hyperbole: Obvious exaggeration, e.g., "The books were stacked to the sky!" or "He was as fast as the Flash!"

Idiom: A combination of words with a meaning different from the individual words, e.g., "kick the bucket" meaning to die.

Prefixes and suffixes:

A prefix is a word part that is added to the front of a base word to change the meaning of that word. More than one prefix may mean the same thing.

Examples:

the prefixes dis ,non ,and un mean “not,” or “the opposite of.”

dis + approve= disapprove (not approve)

non + toxic = nontoxic ( not toxic )

un + happy = unhappy ( not happy)

A suffix is a word that is added to the end of a base word . A suffix usually changes the meaning of the world.

Examples:

The suffix - able means “able to be”

The suffix -ment means “the act of.”

The suffix - ness means “being'“

pass + able = passable (able to pass)

move + ment = (the act of moving)

kind + ness = kindness (being kind)

Articles are for example “A”, the , An

Adverbs

• Definition: Adverbs are words that modify or provide more information about verbs. They can also describe adjectives, other adverbs, or even set the tone of the entire sentence.

Types of Adverbs

1. Adverbs of Manner (How?)

   • Examples: slowly, happily, gracefully, quickly

2. Adverbs of Place (Where?)

   • Examples: here, there, somewhere, everywhere

3. Adverbs of Time (When?)

   • Examples: today, tomorrow, early, late

4. Adverbs of Frequency (How often?)

   • Examples: always, never, sometimes, occasionally

5. Adverbs of Degree (To what extent?)

   • Examples: very, extremely, perfectly

     Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences

     1. Simple Sentences

     • A simple sentence (independent clause) contains a subject and a verb.Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences

       1. Simple Sentences

       • A simple sentence (independent clause) contains a subject and a verb.

       • It expresses a complete thought.
         Example: Owls hunt at night.

       ---

       2. Compound Sentences

       • A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction (FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).

       • Each clause has its own subject and predicate.
         Examples:
         I ate pizza, and James ate pasta.
         Ben ran the race, but Sam won the race.

       ---

       3. Complex Sentences

       • A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses.

       • Dependent clauses cannot stand alone.
         Examples:
         After she finished, she noticed the error.
         Although he ran, Ben didn’t win the race.

       ---

       It expresses a complete thought.
       Example: Owls hunt at night.

     ---

     2. Compound Sentences

     • A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction (FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).

     • Each clause has its own subject and predicate.
       Examples:
       I ate pizza, and James ate pasta.
       Ben ran the race, but Sam won the race.

     ---

     3. Complex Sentences

     • A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses.

     • Dependent clauses cannot stand alone.
       Examples:
       After she finished, she noticed the error.
       Although he ran, Ben didn’t win the race.

     ---

Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives show ownership or possession and are used to describe a noun by indicating to whom it belongs. They always come before a noun.

Examples:

• My book is on the table.

• Her car is red.

• Their house is beautiful.

List of Possessive Adjectives:

• My

• Your

• His

• Her

• Its

• Our

• Their

  Possessive Pronouns

  Possessive pronouns also show ownership or possession, but they replace a noun instead of modifying it.

Examples:

• This book is mine.

• That car is hers.

• The house is theirs.

List of Possessive Pronouns:

• Mine

• Yours

• His

• Hers

• Ours

• Theirs

  Usage in Sentences:

  1. Possessive Adjective:

     • She loves her dog.

     • We brought our lunch.

  2. Possessive Pronoun:

     • The dog is hers.

     • The lunch is ours.

       Key Difference:

       • Possessive adjectives come before a noun.

       • Possessive pronouns replace a noun.

         Root words

       • cycle

         cycle means (circular) for example bicycle, recycle

       • Graph

         graph means (write or draw) for example autograph,photograph and paragraph

       • Phon

         phon means (sound) for example telephone and mircophone