all organisms require an input of ____ from the environment
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ATP
organisms generally convert the energy they obtain into
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carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
What are the biological molecules?
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water
What is the most abundant molecule in living organisms?
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enzymes
proteins that act as catalysts to speed up biochemical reactions
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hydrogen bonding
the attraction between the positive (hydrogen) side of water molecule and the negative (oxygen) side of another water molecule
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hydrogen
What is the positive side of a water molecule?
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oxygen
What is the negative side of a water molecule?
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ionic compounds
Water is a good solvent of
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water is a good solvent
Why can so many biochemical reactions take place within a cell and its immediate environment?
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acid
more H+ than OH-
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base
more OH- than H+
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cohesion
ability of water molecules to stick together
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adhesion
ability of water to adhere to other molecules
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surface tension
difficulty in breaking the surface of water
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high specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity
it heats up and cools down quickly
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monomers
building blocks of larger macromolecules called polymers
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macromolecules
large molecules that fall into four categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
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condensation reactions
responsible for the biosynthesis of polymers from monomers with the removal of water
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hydrolysis
break down polymers into their monomers with the addition of water
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carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
What elements are found in all organisms (and macromolecules)?
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proteins and nucleic acids
nitrogen is commonly found in
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proteins
sulfur is commonly found in
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nucleic acids
phosphorus is commonly found in
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carbohydrates
consist of sugar and polymers of sugars
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sugar
monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
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glucose C6H12O6
the most important monosaccharide and its formula
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the bonding between carbohydrate subunits
What determines the specific orientation of a carbohydrate and its secondary structure?
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lipids
water-insoluble molecules composed of glycerol and fatty acids
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fats/triglyercides
energy storage molecules consisting of one glycerol molecule with three fatty acid molecules attached
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saturated fatty acids
do not contain a double bond and are more likely to be solid at room temperature
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unsaturated fatty acids
have one or more double bonds and are more likely to be fluid at room temperature
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phospholipids
consist of one glycerol molecule with two fatty acid molecules attached as well as a polar component; they can self-assemble into a classic bilayer arrangement that is the basis of all biological membranes
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wax and steriods
lipids with more complex structures that have a number of functions, including cholesterol
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proteins
polymers made up of different combinations of 20 commonly occurring amino acid monomers
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protein functions
structural components of cells and tissues
transporting materials through the cell membrane
catalysts (enzymes)
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\ peptide bonds
How are amino acids connected?
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dehydration synthesis
proteins are formed via
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hydrogen atom
carboxyl group (COOH)
amine group (NH2)
variable r group different for each amino
the central carbon atom in amino acids is covalently bonded to four atoms or functional groups:
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primary structure
refers to the specific linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
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secondary structure
the initial folding patterns of certain lengths of the polypeptide chain, such as alpha helices and beta pleated sheets
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tertiary structure
refers to the overall shape in which a polypeptide eventually folds
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quaternary structure
arises from the association of two or more folded polypeptides to form a multisubunit proteinn
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nucleic acids
made from nucleotides, DNA and RNA
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5 carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base
parts of a nucleotide
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adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
DNA bases
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adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine
RNA bases
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carbohydrates
general functions:
energy
energy storage
cell wall structure
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lipids
general functions
energy storage
plasma membrane structure
physical protection
hormones
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proteins
general functions:
biochemical catalysts
structure, movement, signal reception
transport of materials in and out of cells
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nucleic acids
general functions:
storage of genetic information
converts genetic information into proteins
energy currency of the cell
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enzymes
proteins that act as catalysts to speed up biochemical reactions
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activation energy
the energy required to initiate a chemical reactiona
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lower
enzymes _____ the activation energy of a reaction
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substrates
enzymes combine with ______, they have an active site where it attaches.
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catalytic reaction
What kind of reaction takes place when the enzyme and substrate are joined, forming a product?
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recycled
enzymes can be ______
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pH, temperature, and substrate concentration
enzymes are affected by
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increases
As a substrates concentration increases, the reaction speed increases/decreases up to a certain point
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cofactors and coenzymes
can also affect enzyme function, as some enzymes may only be active when these are present.
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