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amplification
The strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction.
apoptosis
A program of controlled cell suicide
epinephrine
water soluble ligand molecule
A catecholamine that
when secreted by the adrenal medulla
also released by some neurons as a neurotransmitter
G protein
A GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor
gap junction
A type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells.
glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals
the animal equivalent of starch.
ligand
A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule
often first step in cell communication. Water soluble ligands typically do not enter cell. Lipid soluble ligands (such as steroids) do enter the cell.
ligand-gated ion channel
A protein pore in cellular membranes that opens or closes in response to A signaling chemical (its ligand)
local regulator
A secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted. Used in paracrine and synaptic signaling.
protein kinase
An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein
protein phosphatase
An enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins
receptor tyrosine kinase
A receptor protein in the plasma membrane
signal transduction
The linkage of a mechanical
testosterone
A steroid hormone required for development of the male reproductive system
the major androgen in mammals. Pathway illustrates the mechanism for all steroid hormones.
transcription factor
A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes. The hormone-receptor complex becomes a transcription factor in the steroid transduction pathway.
three stages of cell communication
reception - receptor responds to binding of ligand molecule
transduction - translation and amplification of message
response - activation of cellular response
g-linked protein receptor
receives message for g-linked protein signaling pathway. Consists of seven alpha helices that span the plasma membrane. Changes shape when ligand molecule binds.
signal transduction pathway
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.
local regulators
These regulators influence cells in the vicinity of them.
hormones
Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells
ligand
A molecule that specifically binds to another molecule
protein kinase
The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.
protein phosphatases
Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.
reception
The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.
transduction
The binding of the signal molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.
response
The transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.
G-protein-linked receptor
A plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a G-protein.
receptor tyrosine kinase
A receptor with enzymatic activity that can trigger more than one signal transduction pathway at once
ligand-gated ion channel
Type of membrane receptor that has a region that can act as a "gate" when the receptor changes shape.
sexual reproduction
reproduction that results from combining genetic material from two individuals.
meiosis
type of cell division that results in 4 daughter cells that each have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Diploid
A cell containing two full sets of chromosomes 2n=46.
Haploid
A cell containing a single/ half set of chromosomes n=23
Gametes
A haploid male or female germ cell (e.g. sperm and egg)
gene
a section of the DNA (chromosome) that codes for a specific trait (e.g. eye color or hair color)
crossing over
when homologous chromosomes exchange genes during Prophase 1 creating new mixture of parent traits in their offspring
Meiosis I
PMAT I: The first cell division of meiosis when the homologous pairs are split up into two separate cells.
Meiosis II
PMAT II: The second cell division of meiosis. This is when the sister chromatids are split up into two separate cells.
Mitosis
Produces cells almost genetically identical
Asexual reproduction
Has the advantage of producing offspring in greater numbers
23 pairs of chromosomes
How many pairs of chromosomes present in humans
Chromosome
Coiled up DNA
Chromatin
Uncoiled DNA. Present in interphase
Homologous Chromosomes
Carry the same genes at the same locus (location). Ex. Chromosome 1 and Chromosome 1
Function and location of Mitosis
Cell division for growth
Function and location of Meiosis
Cell division for gamete production (sperm and eggs). PMATPMAT
Phases of the Cell Cycle
Interphase (G1
Parts of Interphase
DNA is chromatin G1- growth/protein synthesis S- DNA replication G2- growth/protein synthesis
Events in Prophase
Chromatin coils up into chromosomes. Centrioles move to poles. Spindle fibres and asters form. Nucleus and nucleolus disappear.
Events in Metaphase
Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. MIDDLE
Anaphase
APART! Centromeres divide.
Telophase
Cleavage furrow forms.
Cytokinesis
Cell divides into two. Cell plate forms in plant cells.
Sexual Reproduction
Requires male and female gametes. Variation.
Asexual Reproduction
One parent only. (cloning) Mitosis.
Crossing over
Homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material during prophase I. Occurs more often in genes that are further apart.
Prophase I
Synapsis - homologous chromosomes (tetrads) pair up. Crossing over may occur - exchange of genetic material.
Metaphase I
Homologous pairs line up in the middle on the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I
Segregation - Homologous pairs separate to opposite poles.
Telophase I
Cleavage furrow. Replicated chromosomes reach the poles.
Prophase II
Chromosomes can be seen. Cells are haploid (n).
Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up in the middle
Anaphase II
Centromeres split. Single chromosomes move apart.
Telophase II
Cleavage furrow.
Zygote
sperm + egg 2n
amplification
The strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction.
apoptosis
A program of controlled cell suicide, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die.
epinephrine
water soluble ligand molecule; A catecholamine that, when secreted by the adrenal medulla, mediates "fight
G protein
A GTP
gap junction
A type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells.
glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
ligand
A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule; often first step in cell communication. Water soluble ligands typically do not enter cell. Lipid soluble ligands (such as steroids) do enter the cell.
ligand
gated ion channel
local regulator
A secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted. Used in paracrine and synaptic signaling.
protein kinase
An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein.
protein phosphatase
An enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase.
receptor tyrosine kinase
A receptor protein in the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic (intracellular) part of which can catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine on another protein. Receptor tyrosine kinases often respond to the binding of a signaling molecule by dimerizing and then phosphorylating a tyrosine on the cytoplasmic portion of the other receptor in the dimer. The phosphorylated tyrosines on the receptors then activate other signal transduction proteins within the cell.
signal transduction
The linkage of a mechanical, chemical, or electromagnetic stimulus to a specific cellular response.
testosterone
A steroid hormone required for development of the male reproductive system, spermatogenesis, and male secondary sex characteristics; the major androgen in mammals. Pathway illustrates the mechanism for all steroid hormones.
transcription factor
A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes. The hormone
three stages of cell communication
reception
g
linked protein receptor
signal transduction pathway
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.
local regulators
These regulators influence cells in the vicinity of them.
hormones
Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.
ligand
A molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one.
protein kinase
The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.
protein phosphatases
Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.
reception
The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.
transduction
The binding of the signal molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.
response
The transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.
G
protein
Note 
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