Psychology - memory

What are the 3 processes of memory?

Encoding, storage, retrieval.

How is this information encoded during the encoding process?

Information is manipulated into a form that can be stored, such as visual, acoustic, semantic, tactile, or olfactory encoding.

Describe what happens during the storage process of memory. (2 marks)

Storage is the process of maintaining information over time. It involves holding the encoded information in memory until it is needed for retrieval.

Identify and explain one type of retrieval. (3 marks)

One type of retrieval is recognition, where a person identifies information that they have encountered before, such as answering a multiple-choice question.

Give an example of how retrieval might fail, leading to forgetting. (2 marks)

Retrieval failure may occur due to a lack of cues, such as not remembering a person’s name because no context or reminders are available to trigger the memory.

Name the 5 types of encoding.

Visual, Acoustic, Semantic, Olfactory, Tactile

What is stored by these processes of encoding?

Visual encoding: Sight

Acoustic encoding: Sounds

Semantic encoding: Meanings

Olfactory encoding: Smell

Tactile encoding: Touch

Define semantic encoding and give an example. (2 marks)

Semantic encoding refers to the encoding of information based on its meaning. For example, understanding and remembering the concept of “justice” in a legal context.

Explain the difference between visual encoding and acoustic encoding. (3 marks)

Visual encoding involves storing information as images or visual representations, while acoustic encoding involves storing information based on sounds, such as remembering a song or a phone number by repeating it.

What was the main aim of Baddeley’s study of memory?

To investigate the different types of encoding in STM and LTM

What did Baddely’s study conclude about encoding in STM?

STM encodes information acoursticaly, as participants struggled with similar sounding words

Describe the method used in Baddeley’s study to test encoding in short-term memory. (3 marks)

Participants were given a list of acoustically similar or dissimilar words and asked to recall them immediately. The results were used to determine how short-term memory encodes information.

What did Baddeley’s study conclude about the encoding in LTM?

LTM encodes information semantically, as participants struggled with similar sounding words

What did Baddeley’s study conclude about encoding?

STM is encoded acoustically

LTM is encoded semantically

What are the 3 types of LTM

Episodic, Semantic, Procedural.

Explain one criticism of Baddeley’s study. (3 marks)

One criticism is that the study lacks ecological validity because recalling lists of words is an artificial task that may not reflect real-life memory processes.

How is procedural memory different from episodic and semantic memory?

Procedural memory involves knowing how to do things (skills), while episodic memory relates to personal events, and semantic memory involves facts and knowledge.

You could also say:

Procedural memory is a non-declarative (unconsious recall) and associated with the motor area of the brain, while episodic memory and semantic memory are declarative (conscious recall) and associated with the prefrontal area of the brain.

Explain the difference between episodic memory and semantic memory. (3 marks)

Episodic memory is the recall of personal experiences or events, including when and where they happened. Semantic memory refers to general knowledge or facts that are not tied to a specific time or place.

Who proposed the multistory model of memory and when

Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1960

Give an example of procedural memory and explain why it is considered different from episodic and semantic memory. (3 marks)

An example of procedural memory is knowing how to ride a bicycle. It is different because it involves remembering how to perform tasks or skills and does not require conscious effort for recall.

Describe one way in which episodic memory can be influenced by external factors. (2 marks)

Episodic memory can be influenced by emotional events, such as remembering a birthday more vividly because it was a significant, happy event.

What are the three stores in the multi-store model of memory?

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM).

What role does rehearsal play in the multi-store model?

Rehearsal allows information to be maintained in STM and transferred to LTM.

Outline the three components of the multi-store model of memory. (3 marks)

The multi-store model consists of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Information passes from one stage to another through attention and rehearsal.

How does information move from short-term memory to long-term memory according to the multi-store model? (2 marks)

Information moves from short-term memory to long-term memory through rehearsal, particularly elaborative rehearsal, where meaning is attached to the information.

What is the capacity of short-term memory according to the multi-store model? (2 marks)

The capacity of short-term memory is 7±2 items or chunks of information.

What is the primacy effect?

The tendency to remember the first items in a list due to rehearsal and storage in LTM

Identify one strength and one weakness of the multi-store model of memory. (4 marks)

Strength: Supported by research such as Baddeley’s study showing separate stores for STM and LTM.

Weakness: Oversimplifies memory as it assumes that STM and LTM are single unitary stores, but research shows they have different components (e.g., visual and auditory memory in STM).

What is recency effect?

The tendency to remember the last items in a list because it is heard recently and storage in STM

How does the recency effect support the multi-store model?

It supports the model as the last items in a list are recalled better since they are still in short-term memory.

What did Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study show about memory?

It demonstrated that memory is reconstructive and influenced by cultural and social expectations.

How does the primacy effect support the idea of long-term memory?

The primacy effect occurs because the first few items in a list have been rehearsed and transferred into long-term memory, supporting the concept of long-term memory in the multi-store model.

Murdock’s serial position curve study found a higher recall of words at the beginning and end of a list. What does this suggest about memory processes? (4 marks)

It suggests that items at the beginning are better recalled due to the primacy effect (long-term memory), and items at the end are better recalled due to the recency effect (short-term memory).

How did participants alter the story in Bartlett’s study?

They changed unfamiliar details to align with their own cultural expectations, such as recalling “boats” instead of “canoes.”

What is proactive interference?

Proactive interference occurs when older memories disrupt the recall of newer information.

Describe one method Bartlett used in his War of the Ghosts study. (3 marks)

Bartlett used the method of serial reproduction, where participants were asked to recall a story after a certain period, and the recalled version was then passed on to the next person for further recall.

What did Bartlett conclude about memory from his War of the Ghosts study? (2 marks)

Bartlett concluded that memory is reconstructive and that people often alter memories to fit their cultural and social expectations.

In McGeoch and McDonald’s study, which list caused the most interference?

The list of synonyms caused the most interference, as the similar meaning confused participants.

Explain the difference between proactive and retroactive interference. (3 marks)

Proactive interference occurs when old memories disrupt the recall of new information. Retroactive interference occurs when new information disrupts the recall of old memories

What did Baddeley and Godden’s study on divers show about context-dependent memory?

Participants who learned and recalled information in the same context (either underwater or on land) performed better.

How did McGeoch and McDonald’s study show the effect of similarity on interference? (3 marks)

The study found that participants had the least accurate recall when learning a list of synonyms, showing that interference is strongest when the new and old information are similar.

What is one limitation of using interference to explain forgetting? (2 marks)

A limitation is that interference may only explain forgetting in specific, similar tasks, and not in real-life situations where information is learned in different contexts.

Why does context improve memory recall?

External cues in the environment, like place or smell, can trigger memories associated with that context.

What is a false memory?

A false memory is a recollection of an event that did not actually happen, but feels real.

How might context-dependent memory be useful in real-life situations? (2 marks)

It may help students improve exam performance by revising in a similar environment to where the exam will take place, helping trigger memory recall.

What was the result of Loftus and Pickrell’s “Lost in the Mall” experiment?

6 out of 24 participants believed they remembered the false event of getting lost in a shopping mall during childhood.

Why is the creation of false memories concerning for eyewitness testimony in legal settings? (4 marks)

The creation of false memories is concerning because it shows that eyewitnesses can be influenced by leading questions or suggestions, which could result in inaccurate or distorted recall. This has significant implications for legal proceedings, where incorrect testimony could lead to wrongful convictions.