honors bio finals

Compare the processes and locations of cellular respiration and photosynthesis

Photosynthesis: Located in chloroplasts, converts solar energy into glucose

Cellular respiration: Mitochondria, breaks down glucose to release ATP

Explain why it is accurate to say that life on Earth is solar-powered.

Life is solar powered because sunlight energy is stored in glucose by plants and later harvested by organisms during respiration

Explain how breathing and cellular respiration are related.

Breathing supplies O2 and removes CO2

Cellular respiration uses o2 to oxidize glucose, producing CO2, H2O, and ATP

Provide the overall chemical equation for cellular respiration.

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ 34 ATP molecules

Glucose+oxygen=carbon dioxide+water+Adenosine Triphosphate

Explain how the human body uses its daily supply of ATP.

Used for muscle contraction, active transport, biosynthesis,e tc

Define a kilocalorie and relate it to a food calorie.

1kcal: 1,000 calories

1 food calorie (cal) = 1 kilocalorie

Explain how the energy in a glucose molecule is released during cellular respiration.

Glucose to pyruvate, pyruvate to Krebs cycle, Krebs to etc, where most of the ATP is made (phosphate added to the ADP molecule)

Explain how redox reactions are used in cellular respiration.

Glucose is oxidized, losing electrons

Oxygen is reduced, gaining electrons to form water

The electron transfers release energy

Describe the general roles of NADH, the electron transport chain, and oxygen in cellular respiration.

NADH: Carries electrons to the final stage of cellular respiration (ETC)

ETC: transfers electrons to oxygen, pumping the H+ ions, forming a gradient to power ATP synthesis

Oxygen: The final electron acceptor, which forms H2O and starts the ATP

List the cellular regions where glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation occur.

Glycolysis: In the cytoplasm of cells

Citric Acid Cycle (krebs): in the mitochondrial matrix

Oxidative phosphorylation: In the mitochondrial membrane

Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of the three stages of cellular respiration.

Glucose:

Reactants: glucose

Products: 2 pyruvate molecules

Yields 2 ATP and 2 NADH

CA Cycle:

Reactants: 2 acetyl-CoA

Products:6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2

Yields 2 ATP

Oxidative Phosphorylation:

Reactants: NADH, FADH2, O2

Products: H2O, ~28 ATP

Identify the total yield of ATP molecules per glucose. Explain why the number of ATP molecules cannot be stated exactly.

The total yield of ATP from 1 glucose molecule is 30-32 ATP. It cannot be stated exactly because of leakage and cell type

Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of alcohol and lactic acid fermentation.

Alcohol fermentation:

Reactants: Glucose

Products: Ethanol, CO2, NAD+

Yields 2 ATP

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Reactants: glucose

Products: Lactate, NAD+

Yields 2 ATP

Describe the evolutionary history of glycolysis.

Likely one of the earliest metabolic pathways.

Occurs in the cytoplasm and doesn't require O₂, matching early Earth conditions.

Explain how carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are used as fuel for cellular respiration. Explain why a gram of fat yields more ATP than a gram of starch or protein.

Carbs → glucose → glycolysis

Fats→ glycerol (glycolysis)+ fatty acids (acetyl coa)

Fats yield 2x more atp per gram than carbs or proteins

Proteins → amino acids → various entry points

What are the stages of the cell cycle?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT)

What is the role of the cell cycle in organisms?

Method of reproduction

How do genes code for proteins?

DNA gets transcribed into RNA, which then gets translated by the ribosome

Different amino acids code for different tRNA, which makes different proteins

Explain why cell division is essential for prokaryotic and eukaryotic life.

Prokaryotes: Reproduction (asexual, by binary fission).

Eukaryotes: Growth, tissue repair, development, and reproduction (e.g., gamete formation in meiosis).

Explain how prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission.

1. DNA is replicated.

2. Chromosomes attach to the plasma membrane.

3. The cell elongates, separating chromosomes.

4. The plasma membrane pinches in and divides the cell.

Describe the formation, structure, and fate of sister chromatids. (DNA replication)

Formed during DNA replication in S phase.

Two identical DNA copies are joined at the centromere.

They separate during mitosis into individual chromosomes.

Describe the stages of the cell cycle and how they are controlled

Interphase (90% of cycle)

G1: Cell growth

S: DNA replication

G2 preparation for division

Mitotic phase (m)

Mitosis: division of the nucleus

Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm

List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase.

P: Chromosomes condense, spindles form, nuclear envelope breaks down

M: Chromosomes align at the equator, spindles are fully attached

A: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides poles

T: Nuclear envelope reform, chromosome divides in half, chromosomes decondense

Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs.

Prophase: Thickened chromosomes, no nuclear envelope.

Metaphase: Chromosomes are lined up in the center.

Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart.

Telophase: Two nuclei begin to form.

Compare cytokinesis in animal and plant cells

Animal cells: the cleavage furrow forms

Plant cells: cell plate forms from vesicles, and it becomes the cell wall

Describe the experiments of Griffith and Hershey and Chase and explain how they supported the idea that DNA was life's genetic material.

Griffith's Experiment (1928):

Mixed heat-killed pathogenic bacteria with live harmless bacteria → mice died.

Conclusion: A "transforming factor" (later identified as DNA) passed genetic information.

Hershey and Chase (1952):

Used radioactive-labeled DNA (³²P) and protein (³⁵S) in bacteriophages.

Only DNA entered bacteria, proving that DNA is the genetic material.

Compare the structures of DNA and RNA.

DNA: deoxyribose sugar, ATCG bases, double stranded, stores genetic information

RNA: ribose sugar, AUCG bases, single stranded, carries out genetic instructions

Explain how Chargaff's rules relate to the structure of DNA.

The amount of A=T and C=G

Supports base pairing in the double helix model

Explain how the structure of DNA facilitates its replication.

The double helix separates, each strand serves as a template for a new strand via complementary base pairing

Describe the process of DNA replication, noting where it occurs in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Begins at the origins of replication (multiple in eukaryotes; one in prokaryotes).

Helicase unzips DNA, and DNA polymerase adds nucleotides 5'→3'.

Occurs in:

Prokaryotes: cytoplasm

Eukaryotes: nucleus

Describe the locations, reactants, and products of transcription and translation.

Transcription:

Location: Nucleus (eukaryotes), cytoplasm (prokaryotes)

Reactants: DNA, RNA polymerase, nucleotides

Product: mRNA

Translation:

Location: Cytoplasm (both)

Reactants: mRNA, ribosome, tRNA + amino acids

Product: Polypeptide (protein)

Explain how the Genetic Code of DNA and RNA is used to produce polypeptides.

Triplet code: 3 nucleotides = 1 codon → codes for 1 amino acid

Universal, redundant, non-overlapping

Explain how mRNA is produced using DNA in prokaryotic cells.

Transcribed directly and used immediately in translation (no processing).

Explain how eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus.

Pre-mRNA → mRNA through:

5' cap and 3' poly-A tail addition

Splicing: Removes introns, joins exons

Relate the structure of tRNA to its functions in the process of translation

Has anticodon (binds mRNA codon) and amino acid attachment site

Brings correct amino acid to ribosome

Describe the structure and function of ribosomes

Made of rRNA and proteins

Two subunits: large and small

Coordinates mRNA + tRNA during translation

Explain how translation begins.

Small ribosomal subunit binds mRNA

tRNA with start codon (AUG) binds

Large subunit joins → translation begins

Describe the step-by-step process by which amino acids are added to a growing polypeptide chain

tRNAs bring amino acids to A site, peptide bond forms, polypeptide transferred to new tRNA

Ribosome shifts (translocation), and tRNA exits via E site

Diagram the overall process of transcription and translation, noting where each occurs in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

Transcription: DNA → mRNA (nucleus)

Translation: mRNA → protein (cytoplasm)

In prokaryotes: both occur in cytoplasm

Describe the major types of mutations, causes of mutations, and potential consequences

Point mutations: single base change

Silent: no effect

Missense: different amino acid

Nonsense: early stop codon

Frameshift mutations: insertion or deletion alters reading frame

Caused by errors in dna replication

Chemicals, radiation

Consequences:

May be neutral, harmful, or beneficial

Describe the number and organization of human chromosomes in a typical somatic cell. Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.

46 chromosomes in 23 pairs; 22 pairs are autosomes, 1 pair is sex chromosomes (XX or XY).

What are somatic cells?

Somatic cells are diploid (2n).

What are gametes?

Gametes are haploid (n).

What does diploid mean?

Diploid means having two sets of chromosomes.

What does haploid mean?

Haploid means having one set of chromosomes.

Explain why sexual reproduction requires meiosis.

Meiosis makes haploid gametes so the zygote has the correct diploid number.

List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events characteristic of each phase. Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams and micrographs.

Meiosis I: Prophase I (crossing over), Metaphase I (homologs line up), Anaphase I (separate), Telophase I (2 haploid cells).

Meiosis II: Prophase II, Metaphase II (line up), Anaphase II (chromatids split), Telophase II (4 haploid cells).

Describe the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis. Explain how the result of meiosis differs from the result of mitosis.

Both divide cells. Mitosis: 2 identical diploid cells. Meiosis: 4 unique haploid cells.

Explain how the independent orientation of chromosomes at metaphase I, random fertilization, and crossing over contribute to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.

They shuffle genes: random chromosome alignment, sperm/egg pairing, and gene exchange

Describe the main types of chromosomal alterations.

Deletion (loss), duplication (repeat), inversion (flip), translocation (move).

Explain why Mendel's decision to work with peas was a good choice. Define and distinguish between true-breeding organisms, hybrids, the P generation, the F1 generation, and the F2 generation

Peas have clear traits. True-breeding = same trait. Hybrid = mixed. P = parents, F1 = kids, F2 = grandkids.

Define and distinguish between the following pairs of terms: homozygous and heterozygous; dominant allele and recessive allele; genotype and phenotype. Also, define a monohybrid cross and a Punnett square.

Homozygous = same alleles, heterozygous = different. Dominant = shows, recessive = hidden. Genotype = genes, phenotype = traits. Monohybrid = one trait. Punnett square = predicts outcomes.

Explain how Mendel's law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single characteristic.

Alleles separate during meiosis; gametes get one each.

Describe the genetic relationships between homologous chromosomes

Same genes in the same spots; may carry different alleles.

Explain how Mendel's law of independent assortment applies to a dihybrid cross. Illustrate this law with examples from Labrador retrievers and Mendel's work with peas.

Traits sort independently. In peas and Labradors, traits like color and shape pass separately.

Explain how and when the rule of multiplication and the rule of addition can be used to determine the probability of an event. Explain why Mendel was wise to use large sample sizes in his studies

Multiplication = both happen. Addition = either happens. Big samples = accurate results.

Explain how family pedigrees can help determine the inheritance of many human traits.

hey trace how traits pass in families and show patterns.

Explain how recessive and dominant disorders are inherited. Provide examples of each.

Recessive = 2 bad alleles (e.g., CF). Dominant = 1 bad allele (e.g., Huntington's)

Describe the inheritance patterns of incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, codominance, and polygenic inheritance. Provide an example of each.

Incomplete = blend (pink).

Multiple alleles = more than 2 (blood types).

Codominance = both show (AB).

Polygenic = many genes (skin color)

Describe patterns of sex-linked inheritance

Traits on X affect males more since they only have one X

Explain why sex-linked disorders are expressed more frequently in men than in women

Males lack a second X to mask recessive alleles; males have 1 X

Compare the three domains of life. Distinguish between the subgroups of the domain Eukarya.

Bacteria - Prokaryotic, unicellular, peptidoglycan cell walls.

Archaea - Prokaryotic, unicellular, extremophiles, no peptidoglycan.

Eukarya - Eukaryotic cells with membrane-bound organelles.

Subgroups of Eukarya:

Protists - Mostly unicellular, diverse (e.g., algae, amoeba).

Fungi - Decomposers, absorb nutrients (e.g., mushrooms, yeast).

Plants - Multicellular, photosynthetic autotrophs.

Animals - Multicellular, ingestive heterotrophs

Describe the process and products of natural selection.

Process

1. Genetic variation exists in populations.

2. More offspring are produced than can survive.

3. Individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce.

4. Over time, beneficial traits become more common.

Products: adaptations that increase fitness

Explain how mutation and sexual reproduction produce genetic variation.

Mutation - New alleles.

Mutation - New alleles.

Sexual reproduction - Recombination, independent assortment, crossing over.

Define the gene pool, a population, and microevolution

Gene pool: All alleles in a population.

Population: Group of interbreeding individuals.

Microevolution: Allele frequency changes over time.

Describe the five conditions required for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

1.No mutations

2. Random mating

3. No natural selection

4. Large population size

5. No gene flow

Explain the significance of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to natural populations and to public health science.

Baseline for detecting evolution.

Public health: Estimate carrier frequencies for diseases.

Describe the three main causes of evolutionary change.

Natural selection (only adaptive one)

Genetic drift

Gene flow

Define genetic drift and gene flow. Explain how the bottleneck effect and the founder effect influence microevolution.

Bottleneck effect: Disaster reduces population size → loss of variation.

Founder effect: Small group colonizes → different gene pool.

Explain how genetic bottlenecks threaten the survival of certain species.

Certain species may not have the traits to adapt to the new environment and can lead to everyone dying

Explain why natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently leads to adaptive evolution.

Natural Selection → Adaptive evolution (increases fitness).

Distinguish between stabilizing selection, directional selection, and disruptive selection. Describe an example of each.

Stabilizing: Favors average (e.g., human birth weight).

Directional: Favors one extreme (e.g., antibiotic resistance).

Disruptive: Favors both extremes (e.g., seed size in birds).

Define and compare intrasexual selection and intersexual selection.

Intrasexual: Same-sex competition.

Intersexual: Mate choice (e.g., peacock feathers).

Explain how antibiotic resistance has evolved.

Antibiotic Resistance: Mutants survive drugs, reproduce, and dominate.

Explain how genetic variation is maintained in populations.

Diploidy

Balancing selection (e.g., heterozygote advantage)

Explain why natural selection cannot produce perfection.

Limited genetic options

Trade-offs

Evolution edits existing traits, not creates new ones from scratch

Distinguish between microevolution and speciation.

Microevolution = allele changes.

Speciation = new species arise.

Compare the definitions, advantages, and disadvantages of the different species concepts.

Biological: Can interbreed → reproductive isolation is key.

Morphological: Based on form.

Ecological: Based on niche.

Phylogenetic: Smallest group with shared ancestry.

Describe five types of prezygotic barriers and three types of postzygotic barriers that prevent populations of closely related species from interbreeding.

Prezygotic:

Temporal

Habitat

Behavioral

Mechanical

Gametic

Postzygotic:

Reduced hybrid viability

Reduced hybrid fertility

Hybrid breakdown

Explain how geologic processes can fragment populations and lead to speciation

Geographic barrier separates populations → divergence.

Explain how reproductive barriers might evolve in isolated populations of organisms.

Mutation, natural selection, genetic drift.

Explain how sympatric speciation can occur, noting examples in plants and animals.

No geographic separation; can occur via polyploidy (in plants), sexual selection, or habitat differentiation.

Describe the circumstances that led to the adaptive radiation of the Darwin's finches.

Single ancestor → many species with different beaks due to ecological niches.

Explain how hybrid zones affect speciation. Describe examples of reinforcement and fusion in hybrid zones.

Area where species interbreed:

Reinforcement: Barriers strengthen.

Fusion: Species merge.

Stability: Hybrids continue.

Compare the punctuated equilibrium model with the gradual model of evolution. Explain how each model applies to the fossil record.

Gradualism: Slow, steady change.

Punctuated Equilibrium: Rapid bursts, then stability.

Describe the goals of taxonomy. List the progressively broader categories of classification used in systematics in order, from most specific to most general.

Taxonomy Goals: Name and classify organisms.

Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain

DID KING PHILLIP COME OVER FOR GAY SEX

Distinguish between systematics and taxonomy. Distinguish between homologous and analogous structures and provide examples of each. Describe the process of convergent evolution.

Systematics: Evolutionary relationships.

Taxonomy: Naming/classifying.

Homologous: Same origin, different function (e.g., whale flipper & human arm).

Analogous: Same function, different origin (e.g., bat wing & insect wing).

Convergent Evolution: Similar adaptations evolve independently.

Draw and analyze cladograms. Identify outgroups

Show evolutionary relationships.

Outgroup: Distantly related, used for comparison.

Define and distinguish between the different levels within ecosystems. Distinguish between the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem.

Ecological levels (smallest → largest):

Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

Biotic components: Living organisms (plants, animals, bacteria).

Abiotic components: Nonliving elements (temperature, water, sunlight, soil).

Describe the abiotic factors that influence life in the biosphere.

Solar energy: Primary energy source.

Temperature: Affects metabolism and survival.

Water: Essential for all life.

Nutrients: Limit plant growth (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus).

Oxygen availability: Especially crucial in aquatic systems.

Wind and fire: Shape vegetation and habitat conditions.

Define a population and population ecology. Describe the general type of work performed by population ecologists.

Population: Group of the same species in the same area.

Population ecology: Studies changes in population size and factors regulating it (e.g., birth rates, death rates, immigration).

Define population density and describe different types of dispersion patterns.

Population density: # of individuals per unit area/volume.

Dispersion patterns:

Clumped (e.g., schools of fish): most common.

Uniform (e.g., nesting penguins): evenly spaced.

Random (e.g., wind-dispersed plants).

Explain how life tables are used to track survivorship in populations. Compare Type I, Type II, and Type III survivorship curves

Life tables: Track survival patterns over time.

Survivorship curves:

Type I: High survival until old age (humans).

Type II: Constant death rate (squirrels).

Type III: High early mortality (oysters).

Describe and compare the exponential and logistic population growth models, illustrating both with examples. Explain the concept of carrying capacity.

Exponential growth: Ideal, unlimited resources → J-curve.

Logistic growth: Limited resources → S-curve.

Carrying capacity (K): Max population size environment can support.

Describe the factors that regulate growth in natural populations.

Density-dependent factors: Food, space, disease.

Density-independent factors: Weather, natural disasters.

Define boom-and-bust cycles, explain why they occur, and provide examples.

Boom: Rapid population increase.

Bust: Sudden decline due to resource depletion or predation.

Examples: Lemmings, snowshoe hares vs. lynx.

Define a biological community. Explain why the study of community ecology is important.

Bio Community: All organisms in a particular area that have the potential to interact with each other

Community ecology: Studies species interactions and structure.

Define interspecific competition, mutualism, predation, herbivory, and parasitism and provide examples of each.

Interspecific competition: (-/-) e.g., lions and hyenas.

Mutualism: (+/+) e.g., bees and flowers.

Predation: (+/-) e.g., wolves hunting elk.

Herbivory: (+/-) e.g., caterpillar eating a leaf.

Parasitism: (+/-) e.g., tapeworm in intestines.

Define an ecological niche. Explain how interspecific competition can occur when the niches of two populations overlap.

Niche: Role an organism plays (habitat + resources).

Competition occurs if niches overlap → resource limitation

Describe the mutualistic relationship between corals and dinoflagellates.

Corals & dinoflagellates: Dinoflagellates photosynthesize and provide nutrients; coral provides protection and compounds.