1. Global Social Hierarchies:

   - Rebellions led to the development and transformation of social hierarchies worldwide.

   - Different groups such as royalty, nobility, landowners, scholars, and soldiers sought power.

   - In some societies, merchants and artisans formed a middle class, while peasants, serfs, and slaves struggled.

2. Discrimination in Europe:

   - Jews faced expulsion from England (1290), France (1394), and Spain (1492), highlighting discrimination by majorities.

   - The Ottoman Empire provided relative tolerance and a safe haven for Jews fleeing European discrimination.

3. Policies and Elites:

   - States implemented discriminatory policies based on religion, ethnicity, or social class.

   - Examples include the persecution of Huguenots in predominantly Catholic France and the formation of elite classes like the boyars in Russia.

4. Gunpowder Empires:

   - Tension existed between military elites and absolutist rulers in the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires.

   - These empires, known as gunpowder empires, used military advancements to succeed.

5. Ottoman Society:

   - The Ottoman social system involved a warrior aristocracy and competition with scholars (**ulama**) for bureaucratic positions.

   - Janissaries gained power, and viziers became influential advisors to the sultan.

6. Religious Toleration:

   - The Ottoman Empire demonstrated relative tolerance toward Jews and Christians.

   - Jews in Istanbul, after being expelled from Spain, were allowed to worship but faced restrictions like living in specified areas and paying a tax (**jizya**).

7. Mughal Empire:

   - Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire practiced religious toleration, ending the jizya tax and supporting various religions.

8. Women in Ottoman Empire:

   - Women, like Roxelana, played social and political roles, influencing succession and engaging in "**harem politics**."

9. Social Classes in Ottoman Empire:

   - Merchants and artisans formed a small middle class, while peasants struggled and slaves came from various regions.

10. Qing Dynasty in China:

    - The Manchu rulers aimed to make their culture dominant and were less tolerant than the Mongols.

    - Conflicts with the Han population included the requirement to wear queues and massacres against those who resisted assimilation.

11. European Social Hierarchy:

    - European states had a social hierarchy with royalty and nobility at the top.

    - Nobles struggled for power against royalty, the emerging middle class, and the common people.

12. Power Shifts in Europe:

    - Technological advances like gunpowder and cannons shifted power from nobles to rulers, with Louis XIV advocating absolute power.

13. Jews in Europe:

    - Prejudices against Jews declined in the 17th century, and Jews became more involved in banking and commerce.

14. Russian Social Classes:

    - Moscow's social hierarchy continued with boyars (noble landowners) at the top, followed by merchants and peasants turned serfs.

15. Social Structures in the Americas:

    - Arrival of Europeans, African slave labor, and diseases led to a new social hierarchy based on race and ancestry.

16. Casta System in Latin America:

    - The peninsulares (born in Iberian Peninsula) and criollos (European ancestry born in the Americas) held the top positions in the hierarchy.

    - Mestizos, mulattos, and zambos represented mixed-race groups, while indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans were at the bottom.