Studied by 6 people
Questionnaires
Are a self-report data collection method consisting of a series of carefully structured questions given to participants in a standardised manner.Participants are asked questions about themselves and their attitudes and beliefs
Experimental method
Including laboratory experiments, field experiments
Non-experimental methods
Including observations, questionnaires, interviews and case studies
Clarity
Questions should be clear and concise so respondents know what is being asked -better to have short questions -confusion might arise if statement involves two negatives
Objectivity
Is where in a questionnaire the researcher has not allowed preconceived ideas and opinion influence the design of questions
Avoid bias
Questions should be objective and value free
should not imply that an answer is more desirable -avoid causing offence
Leading questions
Questions where the correct answer is prompted or encouraged by the way it is worded
Socially desirable
This is where the respondents will give an answer that reflects what they think they ought to say to present themselves in a positive light
Open questions
Allow respondents to express themselves freely in their own words and without constrains. This gives rich information and gathered qualitative data.
Closed questions
Give the participant a set range of answer to choose from. Known as fixed response and data gained is quantitative.
Fixed responses
Categories of response Identifying characteristics
Likert Scale
Allows people to show how much they agree or disagree with a statement
Ranked scale item
Participant asked to give a number to represent their views
Semantic differential scales
These are a type of rating scale where people are asked to place a mark on line to indicate their feeling or opinions
Questions for children
When using questionnaires with children the questions and responses must be carefully designed to help children understand
Strengths of Questionnaires
high reliability
quantitive data easy to analyse
relatively cheap
researcher does not need to be present
Weaknesses of Questionnaire
closed questions limit validity -demand characteristics
misunderstanding questions reduces validity
Qualitative data
Is in the form of words and aims to give a complete description of what people think or feel based on what they say or write
Quantitative data
Is in the form of numbers and quantities the behaviour being studied through measuring it on a numerical basis
Structured interviews
Have predetermined questions given in a set order given in a set order so it is standardised.They often produce quantitive and questions are often closed.
Unstructured interview
Involve questions that are not in a set format.They tend to be informal atmosphere and non-directive this means qualitative data tends to be produced
Semi structured interview
Tend to have set questions but some allow the interviewer more chance to explore answers further.They tend to produce both quantitive and qualitative data.
Good practice in interviews
-person understands questions being asked -that they can express views in a safe environment -Leading questions must be avoided
confidentiality is maintained protect participants
Establishing rapport
The interviewer should try to build a harmonious sympathetic and friendly relationship with the interviewee.They should trust and feel comfortable asking questions honestly therefore increasing validity.
Researcher effects/ Researcher Bias
This refers to the idea that the researcher can affect the data that are collected.
Thematic analysis
This is a technique used for the analysis of qualitative data this identifying and assessing patterns in qualitative data allowing conclusion to be drawn
Familiarisation with the data
The researcher must become very familiar with the data-reading and re-reading it, noting their initial observations
Coding
This involves the identification and group together into categories the main ideas that appear to be emerging in the data that are relevant to the research question. Concise labels need to be chosen for each idea.
Searching for Themes
A theme is a coherent and meaningful pattern in the data relevant to the research question.Involves identifying similarity and constructs themes.
4)Reviewing themes
Involves checking that the themes 'work' in that they accurately reflect both coded extracts and the full dataset.
Defining and naming themes
Requires the researcher to conduct and write detailed analysis of each theme.
Writing-up
Involves weaving together the main themes found in the data which contextualising it in relation to the research questions
Thematic analysis strengths
-data remains rich and qualitative -enables reduction of large amounts of complex qualitative data into more manageable -decrease the chance of researchers preconceived themes onto data
Thematic analysis weaknesses
-researcher might have themes in mind when initial coding -Reliability of results is under minded -is very time consuming
Experimenter effect
This term refers to the idea that if experiments know the aims of the study and an expected outcome, they may struggle to remain objective and influence the results to reflect their expectations
The Hawthorne effect
If participants know they are being observed they will change the way they are acting to be perceived in a different way
The single blind
-a control for demand characteristics Participants do not know the aim of the experiment so they do not change their behaviour. This involves lack of informed consent so ethical issues are raised.
The double blind
-a control for demand characteristics and experimenter effects Participants and experiments do not know the aims of the study. The experimenter will not have expectancies or transmit cue to participants.
Problems when trying to control extraneous variables
ethical guidelines - The BPS must be referred to
Laboratory Experiments
In a laboratory the experiment is conducted in a controlled setting that allows the researcher to deliberately manipulated the independent variable while maintaining strict control over extraneous variables
Field Experiments
The researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable but does so in the natural environment of the participant. This is where the behaviour would normally be expected to be seen.Control of extraneous variables is attempted where possible.
Internal validity
Refers to the extent to which the test or measure used of human behaviour accurately measures what is it supposed to.
Confounding Variables
Are uncontrolled variables that have had an effect on results of the experiment therefore threaten the validity of the results
The experimental condition
condition where participants experience the main condition of the IV
The control condition
the condition that gives the researcher a baseline for comparison so that any effects on the DV of experimental condition of the IV can be clearly seen.
Experimental design
concerned with what participants we will put in the control groups.Sometimes we use two different groups of people in each condition sometimes we can use same people in both conditions and we can sometimes use different groups of people in each condition. But make sure each person in one group is matched with one another.
Independent groups/measures
design involves using different participants in each condition of the experiment
Strengths Independent groups/measures
no order affects demand characteristics are less of a problem fewer cues The same test can be used in each condition
Weaknesses Independent groups/measures
Participants variables may affect results more participants required
Repeated measures
this design involves using the same participants in each condition of the experiment
Strengths Repeated measures
participant variables are kept constant between conditions fewer participants required
Weaknesses Repeated measures
Demand characteristics may be more obvious Order effects will effect due to participant given the same test
Matched pairs
design involves using different participants in each condition but making sure they are same on certain important variables that might affect their performance on experimental tasks
Strengths Matched pairs
Participant variables controlled Order effects are not present Demand characteristics are controlled one condition The same test can be used in both conditions
Weaknesses Matched pairs
Matching participants is very difficult process may be biased by experimenter effects more participants are required
Case study
is an in-depth investigation gathering highly detailed information of a single individual or a small group.
An example HM
Henry Molaison was studied in great detailed after having a surgery to cure his severe epilepsy
Strengths of case studies
useful in investigating people with a unique characteristic or experience -allows to check validity of research -the evidence gathered will be qualitative allowing in-depth analysis -conclusions will be highly valid
Limitations of case studies
-may spend a great deal of time interviewing and build and relationship with participant reduces validity -doubtful where information can be generalised -difficult to replicate -cannot establish cause-and-effect links between two variables -ethical issues may be raised
Note
Flashcard