Edexcel Peach booklet 2

Questionnaires

Are a self-report data collection method consisting of a series of carefully structured questions given to participants in a standardised manner.Participants are asked questions about themselves and their attitudes and beliefs

Experimental method

Including laboratory experiments, field experiments

Non-experimental methods

Including observations, questionnaires, interviews and case studies

Clarity

Questions should be clear and concise so respondents know what is being asked
-better to have short questions
-confusion might arise if statement involves two negatives

Objectivity

Is where in a questionnaire the researcher has not allowed preconceived ideas and opinion influence the design of questions

Avoid bias

Questions should be objective and value free
- should not imply that an answer is more desirable
-avoid causing offence

Leading questions

Questions where the correct answer is prompted or encouraged by the way it is worded

Socially desirable

This is where the respondents will give an answer that reflects what they think they ought to say to present themselves in a positive light

Open questions

Allow respondents to express themselves freely in their own words and without constrains. This gives rich information and gathered qualitative data.

Closed questions

Give the participant a set range of answer to choose from. Known as fixed response and data gained is quantitative.

Fixed responses

Categories of response
Identifying characteristics

Likert Scale

Allows people to show how much they agree or disagree with a statement

Ranked scale item

Participant asked to give a number to represent their views

Semantic differential scales

These are a type of rating scale where people are asked to place a mark on line to indicate their feeling or opinions

Questions for children

When using questionnaires with children the questions and responses must be carefully designed to help children understand

Strengths of Questionnaires

- high reliability
- quantitive data easy to analyse
- relatively cheap
- researcher does not need to be present

Weaknesses of Questionnaire

- closed questions limit validity
-demand characteristics
- misunderstanding questions reduces validity

Qualitative data

Is in the form of words and aims to give a complete description of what people think or feel based on what they say or write

Quantitative data

Is in the form of numbers and quantities the behaviour being studied through measuring it on a numerical basis

Structured interviews

Have predetermined questions given in a set order given in a set order so it is standardised.They often produce quantitive and questions are often closed.

Unstructured interview

Involve questions that are not in a set format.They tend to be informal atmosphere and non-directive this means qualitative data tends to be produced

Semi structured interview

Tend to have set questions but some allow the interviewer more chance to explore answers further.They tend to produce both quantitive and qualitative data.

Good practice in interviews

-person understands questions being asked
-that they can express views in a safe environment
-Leading questions must be avoided
- confidentiality is maintained protect participants

Establishing rapport

The interviewer should try to build a harmonious sympathetic and friendly relationship with the interviewee.They should trust and feel comfortable asking questions honestly therefore increasing validity.

Researcher effects/ Researcher Bias

This refers to the idea that the researcher can affect the data that are collected.

Thematic analysis

This is a technique used for the analysis of qualitative data this identifying and assessing patterns in qualitative data allowing conclusion to be drawn

1) Familiarisation with the data

The researcher must become very familiar with the data-reading and re-reading it, noting their initial observations

2) Coding

This involves the identification and group together into categories the main ideas that appear to be emerging in the data that are relevant to the research question. Concise labels need to be chosen for each idea.

3) Searching for Themes

A theme is a coherent and meaningful pattern in the data relevant to the research question.Involves identifying similarity and constructs themes.

4)Reviewing themes

Involves checking that the themes 'work' in that they accurately reflect both coded extracts and the full dataset.

5) Defining and naming themes

Requires the researcher to conduct and write detailed analysis of each theme.

6) Writing-up

Involves weaving together the main themes found in the data which contextualising it in relation to the research questions

Thematic analysis strengths

-data remains rich and qualitative
-enables reduction of large amounts of complex qualitative data into more manageable
-decrease the chance of researchers preconceived themes onto data

Thematic analysis weaknesses

-researcher might have themes in mind when initial coding
-Reliability of results is under minded
-is very time consuming

Experimenter effect

This term refers to the idea that if experiments know the aims of the study and an expected outcome, they may struggle to remain objective and influence the results to reflect their expectations

The Hawthorne effect

If participants know they are being observed they will change the way they are acting to be perceived in a different way

The single blind

-a control for demand characteristics
Participants do not know the aim of the experiment so they do not change their behaviour. This involves lack of informed consent so ethical issues are raised.

The double blind

-a control for demand characteristics and experimenter effects
Participants and experiments do not know the aims of the study. The experimenter will not have expectancies or transmit cue to participants.

Problems when trying to control extraneous variables

ethical guidelines - The BPS must be referred to

Laboratory Experiments

In a laboratory the experiment is conducted in a controlled setting that allows the researcher to deliberately manipulated the independent variable while maintaining strict control over extraneous variables

Field Experiments

The researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable but does so in the natural environment of the participant. This is where the behaviour would normally be expected to be seen.Control of extraneous variables is attempted where possible.

Internal validity

Refers to the extent to which the test or measure used of human behaviour accurately measures what is it supposed to.

Confounding Variables

Are uncontrolled variables that have had an effect on results of the experiment therefore threaten the validity of the results

The experimental condition

condition where participants experience the main condition of the IV

The control condition

the condition that gives the researcher a baseline for comparison so that any effects on the DV of experimental condition of the IV can be clearly seen.

Experimental design

concerned with what participants we will put in the control groups.Sometimes we use two different groups of people in each condition sometimes we can use same people in both conditions and we can sometimes use different groups of people in each condition. But make sure each person in one group is matched with one another.

Independent groups/measures

design involves using different participants in each condition of the experiment

Strengths Independent groups/measures

no order affects
demand characteristics are less of a problem fewer cues
The same test can be used in each condition

Weaknesses Independent groups/measures

Participants variables may affect results
more participants required

Repeated measures

this design involves using the same participants in each condition of the experiment

Strengths Repeated measures

participant variables are kept constant between conditions
fewer participants required

Weaknesses Repeated measures

Demand characteristics may be more obvious
Order effects will effect due to participant given the same test

Matched pairs

design involves using different participants in each condition but making sure they are same on certain important variables that might affect their performance on experimental tasks

Strengths Matched pairs

Participant variables controlled
Order effects are not present
Demand characteristics are controlled one condition
The same test can be used in both conditions

Weaknesses Matched pairs

Matching participants is very difficult
process may be biased by experimenter effects
more participants are required

Case study

is an in-depth investigation gathering highly detailed information of a single individual or a small group.

An example HM

Henry Molaison was studied in great detailed after having a surgery to cure his severe epilepsy

Strengths of case studies

- useful in investigating people with a unique characteristic or experience
-allows to check validity of research
-the evidence gathered will be qualitative allowing in-depth analysis
-conclusions will be highly valid

Limitations of case studies

-may spend a great deal of time interviewing and build and relationship with participant reduces validity
-doubtful where information can be generalised
-difficult to replicate
-cannot establish cause-and-effect links between two variables
-ethical issues may be raised