Human Development – Key Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms from the Human Development lecture, covering genetics, major developmental theories (Freud, Piaget, Erikson, Kohlberg), and nature–nurture debates.

Human Development

Biological and psychological changes that occur in people across the lifespan, from infancy through adulthood.

Infant Physical Development

Growth and bodily changes in the first years of life, including motor skills and brain maturation.

Stages of Brain Development (Infant)

Sequential maturation processes in the brain that support emerging sensory, motor, and cognitive abilities.

Adolescence

Life stage beginning at puberty marked by sexual maturity, identity formation, and increasing independence (approx. ages 11–19).

Sexual Orientation

Enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others, influenced by biological and environmental factors.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins formed from one fertilized egg that splits; they share 100% of their genes.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins formed from two separate eggs; share about 50% of their genes like ordinary siblings.

Chromosome

Long, thread-like DNA-protein structure carrying genetic information; humans have 23 pairs (46 total).

Autosome

Any of the 22 non-sex chromosome pairs that determine most body traits.

Sex Chromosome

Chromosome pair (XX in females, XY in males) that determines biological sex.

Gene

DNA segment that provides instructions for making proteins or regulating cellular functions; basic hereditary unit.

Sex-Linked Gene

Gene located on a sex chromosome whose expression differs between males and females.

Heritability

Statistic estimating how much genetic factors contribute to variation in a trait within a population.

Freud: Oral Stage

Psychosexual stage (0–2 yr) where pleasure centers on the mouth through feeding, sucking, babbling.

Freud: Anal Stage

Stage (2–3 yr) focused on bowel and bladder control and responding to societal demands.

Freud: Phallic Stage

Stage (3–7 yr) where children recognize sex differences and develop early sexuality awareness.

Freud: Latency Stage

Period (7–11 yr) of relative sexual calm while cognitive and social skills develop.

Freud: Genital Stage

Stage (11 yr–adult) featuring mature sexuality and capacity for intimate relationships.

Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage

Cognitive stage (0–2 yr) where infants learn through direct sensory and motor interaction with the environment.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight; achieved around 8–24 months.

Piaget: Preoperational Stage

Stage (2–6/7 yr) characterized by symbolic thinking, language growth, and egocentrism.

Symbolic Thought

Ability to use words, images, or objects to represent things not physically present.

Piaget: Concrete Operational Stage

Stage (7–11/12 yr) where children apply logical operations to concrete objects and grasp conservation.

Conservation

Grasping that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.

Piaget: Formal Operational Stage

Stage (12 yr–adult) involving abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and systematic planning.

Abstract Concepts

Ideas without direct physical reference, such as justice or freedom.

Schema

Mental representation or framework for organizing and interpreting information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new information.

Reflexes (Sensorimotor Stage 1)

Innate responses (sucking, grasping) present from birth to 6 weeks.

Primary Circular Reactions

Repetitive behaviors centered on the infant’s own body (6 weeks–4 mo), e.g., thumb sucking.

Secondary Circular Reactions

Intentional actions producing effects on external objects (4–8 mo), e.g., shaking a rattle.

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions

Combining actions to achieve goals (8–12 mo), e.g., moving obstacles to reach a toy.

Tertiary Circular Reactions

Experimenting with new behaviors to see outcomes (12–18 mo), e.g., dropping objects at different heights.

Mental Representation

Internal symbols of objects and events (18–24 mo) enabling pretend play and problem-solving.

Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust

Infancy conflict where consistent care fosters hope and trust; neglect fosters fear and mistrust.

Erikson: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Toddler conflict of developing self-control; supportive guidance builds will, excessive criticism causes shame.

Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt

Preschool conflict where planning and initiating activities builds purpose; over-control leads to guilt.

Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority

School-age conflict focused on competence and skill mastery; failure yields feelings of inferiority.

Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescent task of forging a coherent self; success brings fidelity, failure causes identity confusion.

Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young-adult challenge of forming close relationships; success yields love, failure leads to isolation.

Erikson: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle-adult focus on contributing to society and next generation; lack thereof breeds stagnation.

Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair

Late-adult reflection where a sense of fulfillment creates wisdom; regret produces despair.

Kohlberg: Obedience/Punishment

Pre-conventional moral stage where right equals avoiding punishment (infancy).

Kohlberg: Self-Interest

Stage where actions aim at rewards and personal gain (pre-school).

Kohlberg: Conformity/Interpersonal Accord

Stage prioritizing approval and good-boy/girl image (school-age).

Kohlberg: Authority/Social Order

Stage valuing fixed rules and social order maintenance (school-age).

Kohlberg: Social Contract

Stage recognizing mutual benefit and that legal and moral rights may differ (teens).

Kohlberg: Universal Principles

Stage guided by self-chosen ethical principles that transcend laws (adulthood).

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Discussion on whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) has greater influence on personality.

Adolescence Difficulty Proposition

Argument that adolescence is the hardest life stage due to simultaneous physical, emotional, and social changes.

Counter-Argument to Adolescence Difficulty

Claim that other stages (early adulthood, midlife, old age) can present greater challenges.