Psychology: History, Research, and Memory

Vicarious Punishment

Observing a model being punished, decreasing the likelihood of imitating their behavior

Modern Psychiatry

Scientific approach to diagnosing and treating psychological disorders

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of modern psychology, established the first psychology laboratory

Introspection

Process of examining one's own conscious experience to break it into its component parts

Psychoanalytic Theory

Theory that focuses on the role of the subconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior

Biological Psychology

Study of how the nervous system generates behavior

Social Psychology

Study of how individuals interact and relate with others

Clinical Psychology

Focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Application of psychological theories to work settings

Sports and Exercise Psychology

Focus on psychological aspects of sports and physical performance

Forensic Psychology

Branch of psychology dealing with the justice system

Mary Whiton Calkins

Psychologist who faced discrimination in receiving her PhD

Research

Process of validating empirical claims

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to seek out information that confirms our beliefs

Overgeneralization

Tendency to overgeneralize based on limited cases

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to falsely believe we predicted an outcome

Confounding Variable

Unanticipated factor that affects both variables of interest

Neuron

Electrically charged cell that transmits information

Superstitious Behavior

Behavior developed in response to random reinforcement

Model

Individual performing the behavior being imitated

Engram

Group of neurons that represent a memory

Psychology

Scientific study of the mind and behavior

Soul or Mind

The seat of consciousness and identity

Subconscious Mind

Unconscious mental processes that influence behavior

Nature vs Nurture

Debate about the relative importance of genetics and environment in shaping behavior

Structuralism

Psychological approach that aimed to identify the components of the mind through experiments and introspection

William James

First American psychologist, founder of functionalism

Functionalism

Psychological approach that emphasized how mental activities help us adapt to our environment

Sigmund Freud

Psychologist known for psychoanalytic theory and emphasis on the subconscious mind

Dream Analysis

Technique used by Freud to assess the subconscious mind

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist known for developing the concept of classical conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus

Cognitive Psychology

Study of thoughts and their relationship to experiences and actions

Carl Rogers

Psychologist known for client-centered therapy and emphasis on empathy and genuineness

Feminist Psychology

Branch of psychology that focuses on reducing barriers and biases based on gender

Developmental Psychology

Study of physical and mental attributes of aging and maturation

Scientific Method

Process of proposing hypotheses, conducting research, and modifying theories based on results

Theory

Well-developed set of ideas that explains observed phenomena

Hypothesis

Tentative and testable statement about the relation between variables

Freud's Theories

Psychological theories that have fallen out of favor due to lack of falsifiability

Clinical Studies

In-depth examination of an individual in unique psychological circumstances

Naturalistic Observation

Observation of behavior in its natural setting

Archival Research

Use of past records or data sets to answer research questions

Surveys

List of questions used to gather data from a sample of a population

Cross-sectional Research

Comparison of multiple segments of a population at a single time

Longitudinal Research

Study in which the same group of individuals is surveyed repeatedly over time

Correlation

Relationship between two or more variables

Cause-and-Effect Relationship

Changes in one variable cause changes in another variable

Independent Variable

Variable controlled by the experimenter

Dependent Variable

Variable measured to see the effect of the independent variable

Experimental Condition

Participants experience the manipulated variable

Control Condition

Participants do not experience the manipulated variable

Placebo Effect

Expectations or beliefs influencing a person's experience

Random Assignment

Method of assigning participants to groups

Participants

Subjects of psychological research

Population

Overall group of individuals that the researcher is interested in

Random Sample

Subset of a population in which every member has an equal chance of being selected

Statistical Analysis

Determines the likelihood of differences between groups

Scientific Journals

Publications that report research findings

Peer-Reviewed Journal Article

Article reviewed by experts in the field before publication

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results

Institutional Review Board

Committee that reviews research proposals involving human participants

Informed Consent

Process of informing research participants and obtaining their consent

Deception

Purposefully misleading participants to maintain the integrity of the experiment

Debriefing

Providing participants with complete information about the experiment after it is concluded

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

Committee that reviews research proposals involving non-human animals

Genotype

Genetic material inherited from parents

Phenotype

Observable traits influenced by genetic variations

Evolutionary Psychology

Focuses on how traits have helped organisms survive and reproduce

Natural Selection

Process by which organisms better suited for their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce

Range of Reaction

Genes set boundaries, environment determines where we fall within the range

Gene/Environment Correlation

Genes influence how we interact with the environment, and the environment affects gene expression

Epigenetics

Biological factors beyond genes that affect gene expression

Resting Potential

Negative charge of a neuron at rest

Action Potential

Brief shift in electrical charge that travels down the axon

Synapse

Space between neurons where neurotransmitters cross

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that affect neurons

Reuptake

Process of moving neurotransmitters back into the axon terminal

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior

Vicarious Reinforcement

Observing a model being rewarded, increasing the likelihood of imitating their behavior

Memory

Mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

Encoding

Process of inputting information into the memory system

Storage

Retention of encoded information in the memory system

Retrieval

Process of getting information out of memory and back into awareness

Sensory Memory

Storage of brief sensory events

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory

Long-Term Memory

Continuous storage of information beyond initial processing

Explicit Memory

Conscious memory of facts and events

Episodic Memory

Memory for autobiographical events

Semantic Memory

Memory for general knowledge and facts

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory for skills and behaviors

Procedural Memory

Memory for how to do things

Recall

Retrieving information without cues

Recognition

Identifying information that has been previously learned

Relearning

Learning information that has been previously learned

Attention

Process of focusing on information to be encoded

Elaborate Rehearsal

Thinking about the meaning of new information to encode it better

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable chunks

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that help organize information

Amnesia

Loss of long-term memory