mcat behavioral sciences

Franz Gall's main contribution to neuropsychology

doctrine of phrenology - if a particular trait was well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand

Pierre Flourens' main contribution to neuropsychology

examined functions of the major sections of the brain by extirpation (various parts of the brain surgically removed and the behavioral consequences observed)

William James' main contribution to neuropsychology

functionalism - how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

John Dewey's main contribution to neuropsychology

study of the organization as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment

Paul Broca's main contribution to neuropsychology

examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage to determine functions of areas of brain

Hermann von Helmholtz's main contribution to neuropsychology

speed of a nerve impulse

Sir Charles Sherrington's main contribution to neuropsychology

inferred the existence of synapses

Sensory neurons

sensory information from receptors to spinal cord and brain through afferent fibers

Motor neurons

motor information from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands through efferent fibers

Interneurons

found between other neurons

Central nervous sytem (CNS) components

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) components

nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord

Somatic nervous system

sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles

Functions of the autonomic nervous system

regulates automatic functions such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and temperature control

Function of the parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest

Function of the sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight

Functions of the meninges and its three components

functions: protect brain, keep anchored, resorb cerebrospinal fluid
components: dura matter, arachnoid matter, pia matter

Parts of the brain that make up the brain stem

midbrain (mesencephalon) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

Last part of the brain to develop

forebrain (prosencephalon)

Cerebral cortex

outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres

Main function of the hindbrain

manage vital functions necessary for survival

Rhombencephalon divisions and their functions

myelencephalon (medulla oblongata) and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)

Functions of the medulla oblongata

regulate breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Function of the pons

contains sensory and motor information between cortex and medulla

Functions of the cerebellum

help maintain posture and balance and coordinate body movements

Divisions of midbrain and their functions

superior colliculus (visual) and inferior colliculus (auditory)

Main functions of the forebrain

complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes, emotion, and memory

Divisions of the prosencephalon

telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland)

Three common methods of brain mapping

cortical maps (patient assistance), electroencephalogram (electrical activity through electrodes), and regional cerebral blood flow (broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain)

Main function of the thalamus

sorts and transmits incoming sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex

Main functions of the hypothalamus

homeostatic functions, key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, helps control some endocrine functions as well as the ANS

Function of the lateral hypothalamus (LH)

hunger center, detects when the body needs more food or fluids

Function of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

satiety center, provides signals to stop eating

Function of the anterior hypothalamus

controls sexual behavior

Functions of the posterior pituitary gland

projection of hypothalamus, release of ADH and oxytocin

Functions of pineal gland

key player in several biological rhythms, secretes melatonin

Functions of the basal ganglia

coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information

Limbic system

structures primarily associated with emotion and memory

Function of the septal nuclei

one of the primary pleasure centers of the brain

Function of the amygdala

important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage

Function of the hippocampus

vital role in learning and memory processes, consolidates information to form long-term memories, and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex

Cerebral cortex and its components

outer surface of the brain, 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)

Frontal lobe regions and their functions

prefrontal cortex (executive functions - perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning), primary motor cortex (initiates voluntary motor movements), Broca's area (vitally important for speech production)

Functions of the parietal lobe

involved in somatosensory information processing

Functions of the occipital lobe

sensation and perception of visual information

Components and functions of the temporal lobe

auditory cortex (primary site of most sound process), Wernicke's area (language reception and comprehension), memory processing, emotion, and language

Dominant hemisphere

primarily analytic in function, making it well-suited for managing details

Non-dominant hemisphere

associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing

Acetylcholine in the PNS

used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles, primary neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system

Acetylcholine in the CNS

linked to attention and arousal

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness, primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system

Dopamine

important role in movement and posture, linked to Schizophrenia and Parkinson's

Serotonin

regulate mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming

GABA

important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain

Glycine

increases chloride influx into the neuron

Glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter

Endorphins

natural painkillers

Functions of the anterior pituitary gland

releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands, controlled by the hypothalamus

Components of adrenal glands and their functions

adrenal medulla (releases epinephrine and norepinephrine) and adrenal cortex (releases corticosteroids and small amounts of sex hormones)

Functions of gonads

produce sex hormones in higher concentrations

Innate behavior

genetically programmed as a result of evolution

Learned behavior

not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature - heredity, nurture - influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior

Neurulation

when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds

Neural crest

cells at the leading edge of the neural fold

Neural tube

ultimately forms the CNS

Alar plate differentiates into:

sensory neurons

Basal plate differentiates into:

motor neuron

Umbilical cord

attachment between fetus and uterine wall and placenta

Functions of the placenta

transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother

Reflex

behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus

Rooting reflex

automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus

Moro reflex

reaction to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms

Babinski reflex

toes spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated

Grasping reflex

closing fingers around an object placed in his or her hand

Gross motor skills

movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion

Fine motor skills

involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes

Stranger anxiety and its timing

fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals (7 months)

Separation anxiety and its timing

fear of being separated from the parental figure (1 year)

Parallel play

children will play alongside each other

Gross motor skills progression

head-to-toe order

Correlation between development of motor skills and proximity to center of the body

core prior to extremities

Social skill progression

parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented

Language skill progression

more complex and structured

Sensation

raw signal, which is unfiltered and unprocessed until it enters the CNS

Perception

processing of information to make sense of it significance

Ganglia

collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system

Projection areas

further analyze the sensory input

Pathway for a stimulus to reach conscious perception

sensory receptor - afferent neuron - sensory ganglion - spinal cord - brain (projection areas)

Photoreceptors

respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum

Hair cells

respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures

Nocireceptors

respond to painful or noxious stimuli

Thermoreceptors

respond to changes in temperature

Osmoreceptors

respond to the osmolality of the blood

Olfactory receptors

respond to volatile compounds

Taste receptors

respond to dissolved compounds

Threshold

minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception

Absolute threshold

minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system (sensation)

Threshold of conscious perception

arrives at the CNS but does not reach the higher-order brain regions that control attention and consciousness

Subliminal perception

perception of a stimulus below a given threshold