mcat behavioral sciences

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Franz Gall's main contribution to neuropsychology
doctrine of phrenology - if a particular trait was well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand
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Pierre Flourens' main contribution to neuropsychology
examined functions of the major sections of the brain by extirpation (various parts of the brain surgically removed and the behavioral consequences observed)
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William James' main contribution to neuropsychology
functionalism - how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
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John Dewey's main contribution to neuropsychology
study of the organization as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment
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Paul Broca's main contribution to neuropsychology
examined the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage to determine functions of areas of brain
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Hermann von Helmholtz's main contribution to neuropsychology
speed of a nerve impulse
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Sir Charles Sherrington's main contribution to neuropsychology
inferred the existence of synapses
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Sensory neurons
sensory information from receptors to spinal cord and brain through afferent fibers
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Motor neurons
motor information from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands through efferent fibers
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Interneurons
found between other neurons
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Central nervous sytem (CNS) components
brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS) components
nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord
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Somatic nervous system
sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles
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Functions of the autonomic nervous system
regulates automatic functions such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and temperature control
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Function of the parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest
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Function of the sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
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Functions of the meninges and its three components
functions: protect brain, keep anchored, resorb cerebrospinal fluid
components: dura matter, arachnoid matter, pia matter
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Parts of the brain that make up the brain stem
midbrain (mesencephalon) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
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Last part of the brain to develop
forebrain (prosencephalon)
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Cerebral cortex
outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres
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Main function of the hindbrain
manage vital functions necessary for survival
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Rhombencephalon divisions and their functions
myelencephalon (medulla oblongata) and metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
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Functions of the medulla oblongata
regulate breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
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Function of the pons
contains sensory and motor information between cortex and medulla
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Functions of the cerebellum
help maintain posture and balance and coordinate body movements
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Divisions of midbrain and their functions
superior colliculus (visual) and inferior colliculus (auditory)
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Main functions of the forebrain
complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes, emotion, and memory
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Divisions of the prosencephalon
telencephalon (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland)
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Three common methods of brain mapping
cortical maps (patient assistance), electroencephalogram (electrical activity through electrodes), and regional cerebral blood flow (broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain)
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Main function of the thalamus
sorts and transmits incoming sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
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Main functions of the hypothalamus
homeostatic functions, key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, helps control some endocrine functions as well as the ANS
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Function of the lateral hypothalamus (LH)
hunger center, detects when the body needs more food or fluids
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Function of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
satiety center, provides signals to stop eating
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Function of the anterior hypothalamus
controls sexual behavior
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Functions of the posterior pituitary gland
projection of hypothalamus, release of ADH and oxytocin
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Functions of pineal gland
key player in several biological rhythms, secretes melatonin
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Functions of the basal ganglia
coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information
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Limbic system
structures primarily associated with emotion and memory
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Function of the septal nuclei
one of the primary pleasure centers of the brain
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Function of the amygdala
important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage
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Function of the hippocampus
vital role in learning and memory processes, consolidates information to form long-term memories, and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex
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Cerebral cortex and its components
outer surface of the brain, 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)
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Frontal lobe regions and their functions
prefrontal cortex (executive functions - perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning), primary motor cortex (initiates voluntary motor movements), Broca's area (vitally important for speech production)
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Functions of the parietal lobe
involved in somatosensory information processing
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Functions of the occipital lobe
sensation and perception of visual information
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Components and functions of the temporal lobe
auditory cortex (primary site of most sound process), Wernicke's area (language reception and comprehension), memory processing, emotion, and language
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Dominant hemisphere
primarily analytic in function, making it well-suited for managing details
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Non-dominant hemisphere
associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing
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Acetylcholine in the PNS
used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles, primary neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system
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Acetylcholine in the CNS
linked to attention and arousal
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Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness, primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system
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Dopamine
important role in movement and posture, linked to Schizophrenia and Parkinson's
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Serotonin
regulate mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming
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GABA
important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain
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Glycine
increases chloride influx into the neuron
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Glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter
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Endorphins
natural painkillers
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Functions of the anterior pituitary gland
releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands, controlled by the hypothalamus
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Components of adrenal glands and their functions
adrenal medulla (releases epinephrine and norepinephrine) and adrenal cortex (releases corticosteroids and small amounts of sex hormones)
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Functions of gonads
produce sex hormones in higher concentrations
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Innate behavior
genetically programmed as a result of evolution
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Learned behavior
not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment
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Nature vs. Nurture
Nature - heredity, nurture - influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior
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Neurulation
when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds
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Neural crest
cells at the leading edge of the neural fold
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Neural tube
ultimately forms the CNS
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Alar plate differentiates into:
sensory neurons
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Basal plate differentiates into:
motor neuron
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Umbilical cord
attachment between fetus and uterine wall and placenta
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Functions of the placenta
transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother
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Reflex
behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus
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Rooting reflex
automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus
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Moro reflex
reaction to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms
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Babinski reflex
toes spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
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Grasping reflex
closing fingers around an object placed in his or her hand
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Gross motor skills
movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion
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Fine motor skills
involve smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes
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Stranger anxiety and its timing
fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals (7 months)
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Separation anxiety and its timing
fear of being separated from the parental figure (1 year)
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Parallel play
children will play alongside each other
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Gross motor skills progression
head-to-toe order
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Correlation between development of motor skills and proximity to center of the body
core prior to extremities
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Social skill progression
parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented
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Language skill progression
more complex and structured
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Sensation
raw signal, which is unfiltered and unprocessed until it enters the CNS
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Perception
processing of information to make sense of it significance
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Ganglia
collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system
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Projection areas
further analyze the sensory input
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Pathway for a stimulus to reach conscious perception
sensory receptor - afferent neuron - sensory ganglion - spinal cord - brain (projection areas)
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Photoreceptors
respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum
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Hair cells
respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures
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Nocireceptors
respond to painful or noxious stimuli
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Thermoreceptors
respond to changes in temperature
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Osmoreceptors
respond to the osmolality of the blood
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Olfactory receptors
respond to volatile compounds
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Taste receptors
respond to dissolved compounds
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Threshold
minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception
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Absolute threshold
minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system (sensation)
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Threshold of conscious perception
arrives at the CNS but does not reach the higher-order brain regions that control attention and consciousness
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Subliminal perception
perception of a stimulus below a given threshold