Sociology Clep

Sociologists

study social events, interactions, and patterns, and they develop a theory in an attempt to explain why things work as they do. In sociology, a theory is a way to explain different aspects of social interactions and to create a testable proposition, called a hypothesis, about society

Anti Malthusians

contemporary researchers who believe the population boom Malthus witnessed was a temporary, historically specific phenomenon and worry instead that the worldwide population may shrink in the future

New Malthusians

Believe that the population issue is really & even worse than the Malthus theorem. That it follows the exponential growth curve.

Malthusians

people who believed overpopulation is the root cause of poverty, illness, and warfare. Population growth will outpace food production and resource availability

Cosmopolites

People who live in a city because of its cultural attractions, restaurants, and other features of the best that a city has to offer

Ethnic Villagers

People who are recent immigrants and members of various ethnic groups who live among each other in certain neighborhoods

Democratic

group consensus

-outcome: friendly, mutual approval

Authoritarian

instructions, little information

-outcome: aggressive, depend on leaders

Laissez-faire

hands off leader

Outcome: more questions: less decisions

Emotional Leader

Leader who helps group by being emotionally supportive

the leader who is less likely to be recognized as a leader but will help with the group's morale

acting crowds

crowds of people who are focused on a specific action or goal

casual crowds

people who share close proximity without really interacting

Travis Hirschi

proposed that we have two control systems that are working against our motivations to commit crime

Philosphoer Thomas Hobbes

believed that social order developed out of the desire to escape a state of continuous social conflict

Howard Becker

observed that an act is not deviant in and of itself, but only when there is a reaction to it

It is not the act itself but the reactions to the act, that make something deviant

created the labeling theory

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes

The person who coined the term sociology

Max Weber

Prominent sociologist Max Weber established a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich in 1919.

Weber wrote on many topics related to sociology including political change in Russia and social forces that affect factory workers.

He is known best for his 1904 book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. The theory that Weber sets forth in this book is still controversial.

Some believe that Weber argued that the beliefs of many Protestants, especially Calvinists, led to the creation of capitalism. Others interpret it as simply claiming that the ideologies of capitalism and Protestantism are complementary. Weber believed that it was difficult, if not impossible, to use standard scientific methods to accurately predict the behavior of groups as people hoped to do. They argued that the influence of culture on human behavior had to be taken into account. This even applied to the researchers themselves, who, they believed, should be aware of how their own cultural biases could influence their research. To deal with this problem, Weber and Dilthey introduced the concept of verstehen, a German word that means to understand in a deep way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a social world—an entire culture or a small setting—attempt to understand it from an insider's point of view. In his book The Nature of Social Action (1922), Weber described sociology as striving to "interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which action proceeds and the effects it produces." He and other like-minded sociologists proposed a philosophy of antipositivism whereby social researchers would strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. This approach led to some research methods whose aim was not to generalize or predict (traditional in science), but to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds. The different approaches to research based on positivism or antipositivism are often considered the foundation for the differences found today between quantitative sociology and qualitative sociology.

Alfred Radcliff Brown

(1881-1955) defined the function of any recurrent activity as the part it played in social life as a whole, and therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and continuity (Radcliff-Brown 1952). In a healthy society, all parts work together to maintain stability, a state called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons (1961).

Bourgeoisie

the middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people

Norbert Elias

-development of etiquette as symbolic of class

-table manners

-proper English

-leisure time and sporting cultures

-fashion, accessories, and style all associated with coffee and tobacco

- coffee, tea, and tobacco (makes you alert and ready for day)

Symbolists

Are concerned about symbols or things we attach meaning to because they see this as a key to understand how humans view the world.

George Simmel

a German art critic who wrote widely on social and political issues as well. Simmel took an antipositivism stance and addressed topics such as social conflict, the function of money, individual identity in city life, and the European fear of outsiders. Much of his work focused on the micro-level theories, and it analyzed the dynamics of two-person and three-person groups. His work also emphasized individual culture as the creative capacities of individuals. Simmel's contributions to sociology are not often included in academic histories of the discipline, perhaps overshadowed by his contemporaries Durkheim, Mead, and Weber.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Sociology as a separate science on the grounds that it has both an object (patterned reularities as a group distinct from that of individuals) and a substratum (society as a whole). He studied suicide and social integration. Durkheim helped establish sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895 and by publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method in 1895. In another important work, Division of Labour in Society (1893), Durkheim laid out his theory on how societies transformed from a primitive state into a capitalist, industrial society. According to Durkheim, people rise to their proper levels in society based on merit. Durkheim believed that sociologists could study objective "social facts" (Poggi 2000). He also believed that through such studies it would be possible to determine if a society was "healthy" or "pathological." He saw healthy societies as stable, while pathological societies experienced a breakdown in social norms between individuals and society. In 1897, Durkheim attempted to demonstrate the effectiveness of his rules of social research when he published a work titled Suicide. Durkheim examined suicide statistics in different police districts to research differences between Catholic and Protestant communities. He attributed the differences to socioreligious forces rather than to individual or psychological causes.

early sociologist, applied Spencer's theory to explain how societies change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability and that society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols. He believed that to study society, a sociologist must look beyond individuals to social facts such as laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals, which all serve to govern social life.

Margaret Mead

Conducted a study in 1930 to determine whether temperament resulted from inherited characteristics or cultural influence

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

(1818-1883) German Is the founder of the conflict perspective and found that there's a major struggle between social classes-cause of change. He contended that a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would lead "to the dictatorship of the proletariat," which in turn would be a transitional phase leading to a classless society

Also, was a Scientific socialist who coauthored "The Communist Manifesto". This book is one of the most influential political manuscripts in history. It also presents Marx's theory of society, which differed from what Comte proposed.

2. Lastly, he believed that the history of class conflict is best understood through the dialectical process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis

Marx rejected Comte's positivism. He believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes over the means of production.

While his economic predictions may not have come true in the time frame he predicted, Marx's idea that social conflict leads to change in society is still one of the major theories used in modern sociology.

Robert K. Merton

major proponent of functionalism.

developed strain theory

expanded our understanding of the concept of social function by pointing out that any social structure probably has many functions. He distinguished between manifest functions and latent functions.

C. Wright Mills

coined the term sociological imagination

George Herbert

Was a philosopher and sociologist who continued Charles Cooney's theory and stressed the importance of symbols including gestures and language in the development of one's self image and behavior. Herbert argued that your self image isn't present at birth, but develops overtime through social experiences and sophistication.

Focused on the ways in which the mind and self were developed as a result of social processes.

Conformists

people who haven't violated the rules of a group and are treated accordingly

Harriet Martineau

First female sociologist and was also a writer who addressed a wide range of social science issues. Her writing career began in 1931 and she was the first to translate Comte's writing from French to English. Martineau was also awarded for her most famous works "Society in America" and "Retrospect of Western". She pointed out faults with the free enterprise system but was discounted because she was a female.

- Queen Victoria loved martineu

Charles Cooney

A sociologist who proposed the theory of looking through a glass self. He argued that image of self is based on how you think others view you. Your social setting provides you with an image of how you perceive others. Self image is a reflection of interaction with others in your social world.

Herbert Spencer

In 1873, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer published The Study of Sociology, the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. Spencer rejected much of Comte's philosophy as well as Marx's theory of class struggle and his support of communism. Instead, he favored a form of government that allowed market forces to control capitalism. His work influenced many early sociologists including Émile Durkheim (1858-1917).

The parts of society that Spencer referred to where the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the economy.

-Coined the phrase, survival of the fittest

Adopted a biological view of society and saw the society as an organism ( was also influenced by Charles Darwin

Coined the phrase, survival of the fittest

He also advocated against social reform efforts because it would disrupt the natural selection process of evolution

He believed that we shouldn't help the lower people in society because they will die over time and the stronger ones will live on

the best traits of society would survive over time

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

The founder of Sociology in the West that coined the term "Sociology." He felt the scientific method should be applied to the study of society (POSITIVISM) and that society was made up of forces of stability (SOCIAL STATICS) and forces of change (SOCIAL DYNAMICS).

Erving Goffman

Dramaturgy Theory

Elliot Lebot

George Farkas

observed that some students especially girls asians know ow to signal teachers that they are good students this affect thier grade

Interested in how teacher expectations affect grades

Asians and girls got better grades

use signals such as nods, and feedback which shows they are interested

Try hard- better grades

W.E.B. DuBois

1st black to earn Ph.D. from Harvard, encouraged blacks to resist systems of segregation and discrimination, helped create NAACP in 1910. Dubois believed in the double conscious and talked about identifying himself as a black person and also viewing himself as a black person in a white society at the time. Dubois argued that the problems with the black communities were not due to racial inferiority, but to racial prejudice.

Booker T Washington

Prominent black American, born into slavery, who believed that racism would end once blacks acquired useful labor skills and proved their economic value to society, was head of the Tuskegee Institute in 1881. His book "Up from Slavery." African American progressive who supported segregation and demanded that African American better themselves individually to achieve equality.

Proletariat

Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

Benjamin Lee Whorf

The American linguist who helped shape this theory, did his original research on indigenous language like hopi and Inuit. Famous for describing concept of "liguistic determinism"

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

A feminist who published "Women + economics." ; called upon women to abandon their dependent status and contribute to the larger life of the community through productive involvement in the economy; wrote "The Yellow Wallpaper"

Kimberly Williams Crenshaw

Leading scholar of Critical Race Theory

Network Theorist

Alice Goffman

Spent six years in an intensely policed poor black neighborhood to aim to understand social processes and to survey the people

Argues that issuing warrants for low-level violations leads men to live anguished lives in which they resort to extreme secrecy and dangerous activity

Dorothy E. Smith

Developed institutional ethnography which is often considered a feminist-inspired approach to social analysis and primarily considers women's experiences within male dominated societies and power structures. Smith's work is seen to challenge sociology's exclusion of women, both academically and in the study of women's lives

Surplus

A situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded

George Murdock

anthropologist that examined hundreds of different cultures in an attempt to determine what general traits are common to all cultures

Randall Collins

correctly predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union based on that country's twentieth-century expansionism and overextension of resources. _______ argued that the true function of schools is to reproduce the class structure, making sure that most people grow up to have a socioeconomic status similar to their parents.

Jane Elliot

A teacher who taught a class of young children discrimination through an experiment within which one eye color was seen as the "better" eye color. Tested this in her blue eyed/brown eyed experiment

Took 28 students in class (third graders)

Eye color determined dominant group (either blue or brown)

Rules for each group-privileges and incentives went to brown eyed students

Reversed the experiment the next day

Ralf Dahrendorf

has noted that the functionalist perspective's emphasis on stability and the conflict perspective's focus on change reflect the contradictory nature of society. classes are social conflict groups the determinant of which can be found in the participation in or exclusion from the exercise of authority. conflict is a fundamental part of any society proposed conflict theory

Lobbyist

A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.

Cultural Relativist

In the human rights context, this refers to those who argue that human rights must take into account the cultural values of a society.

Davis and Moore

a functionalist view of social stratification. believe that some stratification is necessary

Melvin Tumin

disagreed with Davis and Moore's assumption that the relative importance of a particular job can always be measured by how much money or prestige is given.

John Galbraith

"author of Affluent Society, claimed that we had a "society of scarcity" which meant that overpopulation would lead to lack of resources

Argued that certain cultures live in poverty because of values and beliefs

Goes from one generation next

Blames the victim

Gerhard Lenski

argued that social equality tends to increase in advanced industrial societies

Absolute poverty

A standard of poverty based on a minimum level of subsistence below which families should not be expected to exist.

Achieved status

A social position attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts.

Activity theory

An interactionist theory of aging that argues that elderly people who remain active will be best-adjusted.

Adoption

In a legal sense, a process that allows for the transfer of the legal rights, responsibilities, and privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents.

Affirmative action

Positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities.

Ageism

A term coined by Robert N. Butler to refer to prejudice and discrimination against the elderly.

Agrarian society

The most technologically advanced form of preindustrial society. Members are primarily engaged in the production of food but increase their crop yield through such innovations as the plow.

Alienation

The condition of being estranged or disassociated from the surrounding society.

Amalgamation

The process by which a majority group and a minority group combine through intermarriage to form a new group.

Anomie

Durkheim's term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective.

Anomie theory of deviance

A theory developed by Robert Merton that explains deviance as an adaptation either of socially prescribed goals or of the norms governing their attainment, or both.

Anticipatory socialization

Processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Anti-Semitism

Anti-Jewish prejudice.

Apartheid

The former policy of the South African government designed to maintain the separation of Blacks and other non-Whites from the dominant Whites.

Argot

Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture.

Ascribed status

A social position "assigned" to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics.

Assimilation

The process by which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture.

Authority

Power that has been institutionalized and is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised.

Bilateral descent

A kinship system in which both sides of a person's family are regarded as equally important.

Bilingualism

The use of two or more languages in particular settings, such as workplaces or educational facilities, treating each language as equally legitimate.

Birthrate

The number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year. Also known as the crude birthrate.

Black power

A political philosophy promoted by many younger Blacks in the 1960s that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and economic institutions.

Bourgeoisie

Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class, comprising the owners of the means of production.

Bureaucracy

A component of formal organization in which rules and hierarchical ranking are used to achieve efficiency.

Bureaucratization

The process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic.

Capitalism

An economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits.

Castes

Hereditary systems of rank, usually religiously dictated, that tend to be fixed and immobile.

Causal logic

The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other.

Census

An enumeration, or counting, of a population.

Charismatic authority

Max Weber's term for power made legitimate by a leader's exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers.

Class

A term used by Max Weber to refer to a group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income.

Class consciousness

In Karl Marx's view, a subjective awareness held by members of a class regarding their common vested interests and need for collective political action to bring about social change.

Classical theory

An approach to the study of formal organizations that views workers as being motivated almost entirely by economic rewards.

Class system

A social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence mobility.

Closed system

A social system in which there is little or no possibility of individual mobility.

Coalition

A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal.

Code of ethics

The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession.

Cognitive theory of development

Jean Piaget's theory explaining how children's thought progresses through four stages.

Cohabitation

The practice of living together as a male-female couple without marrying.

Colonialism

The maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural dominance over a people by a foreign power for an extended period of time.

Community

A spatial or political unit of social organization that gives people a sense of belonging, based either on shared residence in a particular place or on a common identity.

Concentric-zone theory

A theory of urban growth that sees growth in terms of a series of rings radiating from the central business district.

Conflict perspective

A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.

Conformity

Going along with one's peers, individuals of a person's own status, who have no special right to direct that person's behavior.