History Paper 3 Topic 13

WWII and the Americas

Peace- Depression: 14 Points (Jan 1918)

Woodrow Wilson 14 Points: precursor to LON, but Congress refused to join LON (belief: undermined Monroe Doctrine) or ratify TOV. Republican ‘irreconcilables’ US as ‘associated power’

Peace- Depression: Washington Conference (Feb 1922)

non-iso. limit number of capital shifts and stop constructing war ships for next 10 years. Washington Treaties: limit naval arms race, security + agreements in Pacific. 

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

Outlaw war. Cooperation only to avoid military entanglement.

US Economic Policy 1920s

US: laissez-faire to protectionist. post-1922: economic boom. increased consumerism + hire purchase: goods in $$$ installments.

What happened between 1923-29?

Increased wage rise by 8% for average U.S citizen. 

Dawes Plan (1924)

$ involvement with Europe to reduce German reparations.

1928-29? 

$ climb. economic confidence: Hoover elected 1928: ‘a chicken in every pot and a car in every garage’ 

Crash of Wall Street (Oct 1929)

stockbrokers and banks bankrupt. Credit collapse. by end of 1929, around 2.5 million employed.  retail employees laid off, more homeless. Hoover policy: ‘rugged individualism’- citizen responsibility for own welfare. 

Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (1930)—> 1930 Agricultural Marketing Act 

S-H: promote farmers, higher import duties on foreign produce etc.

Reconstruction Finance Cooperation (Est. 1932)

Did not help despite an increase by 500M in annual federal spending since 1928

Clark Memorandum on the Monroe Doctrine (published 1930 writ. J. Reuben Clark)

Limited the Doctrine's application to a uni-lateral defense measure against European interference rather than enabling US intervention in Latin America.

Dawes Plan (1924)

U.S. sponsored financial arrangement reduced crippling annual WW1 reparation payments + placed Germany’s $ system under foreign supervision 

Latin America: Economic Investment by US (1920-30s)

• post-1918, US heavy investment

• by 1929: US-owned refineries produced 75% of Cuban sugar

• single largest buyer of Brazilian goods and Peruvian sugar/metal 

How was Latin America impacted by US Great Depression?

Catastrophically impacted. US tariffs exacerbated. Industrialization/special agreements with trading partners.

By October 1930…

Military takeovers or attempted coups: Brazil, Chile, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala and Peru

Infamous Decade in Argentina (1930) 

military + landowners (estancieros) challenge gov. 

Brazil 1930s Situation

Rivalry between Sao Paolo (Coffee state) and Minas Gerais (milk state): cafe com leite. dominated Brazilian politics. growing sentiment: preventing industrialization. following unrest, military replace President Luis with Vargas (runner up), ending cafe com leite period of dominance. 

What year did Roosevelt become President and what was his stance?

• 1933.

• Congress majority: isolationists

• Roosevelt did not intend to be involved in European affairs.

• Wanted USA to follow policy of friendship towards other countries 

• wanted US ‘moral force for good’ in world, esp. in Latin America 

Good Neighbour Policy

• Economic and diplomatic co-operation through the Good Neighbor Policy

• continuation of Hoover’s policies of persuasion and economic pressure to exert influence on Latin America

• Roosevelt transformed: Monroe Doctrine—> arranging mutual hemispheric aggression against aggressors 

Executor of Good Neighbour Policy?

Secretary of State: Cordell Hull. Mutual awareness with Roosevelt that 1930 S-H Tariff Act had damaged Latin American economies. however Hull more inclined to free trade than protectionist Roosevelt. 

Inter-American Conference at Montevideo (1933)

• Urugay, US and all Latin American states agreed: no country had right to intervene in int/ext affairs of other. 

• made good on promise in 1938: Mexico nationalized US-owned oil companies. Roosevelt encouraged boycott of Mexican oil but did not aggressively intervene.

How did US execute Good Neighbor Policy?

• US troops left Haiti, DR + Nicaragua

• 1934: treaty with Cuba: nullify Platt Amendment (authorized US occupation of Cuba). USA did retain one naval base at Guantanamo. 

• by 1938: ten treaties with Latin American countries: huge trade increases for the USA 

• Cuban economic improvement: tariff of Cuban sugar reduced + according trade increases 

What were the results of the 1934 Reciprocal Trade Agreement?

• repealed some 1920s iso trade policies so that US could compete in foreign trade

• lower trade barriers + greater global engagement

• tempered by Johnson Debt Default Act of same year: prohibited American citizens from lending money to countries that have previously defaulted on their loans to the United States. (Europeans often couldn’t honour debts bc 1930 S-H Act excluded Euro exports from US markets) 

Renegotiation of Panama Canal Treaty (1936)

• After General Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation: US forfeited right to participate in Panamian politics: greater sovereignty

• yielded right to seize additional land for admin or defense of canal

• 430k rent to Panama

• move away from acting like acquisitive imperialist nation

December 1936 Buenos Aires Conference for Maintenance of Peace

post 1931 Japan attacks on China, and Italy’s attacks of Abyssinia 1935, beginning of Spanish Civil War in 1936 and spread of fascism in Europe

Roosevelt: called for peace conference to be held in Americas, spent month: discuss issues of arms limitations, neutrality and foreign intervention. 

RESULTS: 16 Dec 1936 Non-Intervention Protocol: convention: common policy of neutrality in event of conflict. 

“proclaiming a new spirit” “beyond the ocean we see continents rent asunder by old hatred and new fanaticisms” 

“can we, the Republics of the New World help the Old World” 

1938: 8th Pan-American Conference: Lima

Roosevelt wanted to avoid European entanglement in war. Convened to develop collective security: decisions showed that each state sought avoidance of war + warring actions. Declaration of the Solidarity of America: co-operate, defense of each other against foreign intervention, regular meetings of foreign ministers. peaceful settlement of international disputes. use of force expressly forbidden across national + international policy. International co-op to maintain principles. 

Cultural Achievements of Good Neighbor Policy 

• 1938: Roosevelt est. Cultural Division of the State Department: Latin America special focus 

• four conferences: education, arts, music, publication + libraries

• Time magazine: publishing in Spanish + Portugese. Hollywood: changing stereotypical image of Latin Americans in their films. 

Limitations of Good Neighbor Policy

Indirectly and directly supported pro-US dictatorships: Somoza in Nicaragua, Trujillo in DR and Batista in Cuba. Roosevelt happy to support leaders: stability to countries after uprising, acknowledged as legit authorities to secure their friendship. 

Rationale Behind US Neutrality. 

• Congress sentiment: US had unnecessarily lost men and materiel in WW1, Europe drifting towards further conflict: increased totalitarianism 

• Findings of Nye Commitee: led isolationist Gerald Nye: found that between 1915-Jan 1917: USA lent Germany 27 million vs. 2.3 billion to UK + allies 

• vested interest in winning + substantial profits for munition makers and financiers ie. J.P Morgan Banking

• spurred the non-interventionist movement 

1st Neutrality Act 1935 

• Roosevelt power to prohibit US ships from carrying US-made munitions to nations at war 

• US citizens to travel on warring country ships at own risk to avoid situations like Lusitania incident (1915): 128 US nationals killed when British passenger ship sunk by German submarine 

2nd Neutrality Act: 1936

• banned loans or credits: warring nations 

• but no limit on trade in materials useful for war: Ford, Standard Oil and Texaco sold such items on credit to General Franco: Spanish Civil War 

3rd Neutrality Act: 1937

• forbade export of munitions for use in Spanish Civil War (both sides)

• but nations could buy other goods from the US if they paid cash and used own ships: CASH-AND-CARRY 

4th Neutrality Act: 1937

• US president could determine what could and could not be bought, besides munitions

• goods paid for on delivery

• travel on ships of countries at war UNLAWFUL

Sino-Japanese War: US Neutrality

• July 1937: Japan and China start fighting. US does not invoke Neutrality Acts bc neither party declared war

• Roosevelt: arms to China outraging many in Congress

• worsened relations with Japan

• in Dec 1938: Roosevelt extended commercial credits worth 25 million to China 

What was the first challenge to US neutrality?

 Italy invades Abyssinia (Ethiopia)- Roosevelt sharply criticizes Mussolini- and bans American arms, oils or other materials from Italy- and arms to Ethiopia

Quarantine Speech (Chicago Oct 1937)

CALL: international ‘quarrantine’ against lawlessness of aggressive nations and collective action against aggressors

Roosevelt as appalled by Nationalist bombing of civilians in Spain and aggression of Japan’s warmongering. 

Roosevelt to speechwriter Sam Rosenman: “It is a terrible thing to look over your shoulder when you are trying to lead, and find no one there” 

What are the factors that influenced Roosevelt to support an isolationist policy when he took office in 1933?

recovery of domestic affairs: New Deal. economic nationalism in Great Depression

internationalist but caged by Congressional/public opinion

anti-war sentiments: WW1 as mistake. 1930s isolationist + pacifist movement. 

Could use Neutrality Acts to legally limit US embroilment in foreign wars

Belief that war had benefited arms manufacturers and banks (1934-36 Nye Committee hearings)

Neville Chamberlain’s Opinion

'The greatest single contribution which the United States could make at the present moment to the preservation of world peace would be the amendment of the existing neutrality legislation… constitutes an indirect but potent encouragement to aggression.' 

Robert Dallek’s Opinion: why did America aid Britain and France to defeat Berlin? 

“the preservation of American values and national peace depended on the defeat of Berlin”

Roosevelt: Sept 1939 Fireside Chat: Opinion

'even a neutral cannot be asked to close his mind or his conscience'.

 

Was Roosevelt an isolationist or an interventionist?

R. Divine: Roosevelt was an isolationist.

Michael Simpson, however, argues that Roosevelt was convinced that the US had a role to play in defending democracy and human rights against dangers of fascism, 'Roosevelt meant to shape the world his way and bided his time'. He and Dallek contend: Roosevelt built up public consensus in America to allow US to enter war in 1941 

Michael J Heale: '[FDR] blamed the neutrality laws for encouraging fascist aggression.'

Robert Dallek justifies FDR’s deceit: 'In the light of the national unwillingness to face up fully to the international dangers confronting the country, it is difficult to fault Roosevelt for building a consensus by devious means'.

Roosevelt’s Response to Events in Asia

Roosevelt refused ten Britain appeals from Britain to joint mediate S-J war

limited by US Neutrality Acts and isolationist Congress despite Roosevelt’s sympathy for Chinese

Even after sinking of Panay: 12 Dec 1937: US accepted a swift apology + compensation from Jap, no sanctions, but upped aid to China from 1938.  

Sanctions on Japan, first in 1939. suspending trade agreements and credit. Later embargos on oil/metal.

concerns re. Japan’s June 1940 proposal: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere under Japan’s leadership 

What was the US response to Japan post-1938?

January 1939 “moral embargo” on planes and aviation parts sales

feb 1939: cut off credit to Japan, suspended trade agreement in July.

Between 1940 and 1941 the US gave millions of dollars of aid to China and in June 1941, sent 100 P-40 US fighter planes. next month, froze all Japanese assets.

1st August the US imposed an embargo on oil to Japan: prelude to Pearl Harbour (along with Hull Note), november trade embargo

1941: Roosevelt Four Freedoms Speech: what are the four freedoms he articulated to impel greater US involvement in international conflicts?

freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. (painted by Norman Rockwell) 

What was Canada's reaction to events in Europe?

'All these European troubles are not worth the bones of a Toronto grenadier.' - Frank Underhill

Liberal: William Lyon Mackenzie King aim to neutrality. French Canadians isolationist, English Canadians would want to support Britain in future war with Germany. 

• Abyssinia crisis 1935-36- Canada reluctantly supported sanctions against Italy through LON. non-intervention (no military involvement)

• Spanish Civil War: 1936-39: Canadian gov stayed neutral. Canadians banned from fighting under Foreign Enlistment Act. but 1.5k Canadians still fought in Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion without gov support. wildly respected grassroots resistance vs. gov as morally questionable

• only concern in 1936 Rhineland Crisis

• Sept 10 1939: follow Britain into war a week later. loyalty, undeniable aggression of Hitler, F-Cs reassured by McK King’s no-conscription promise, war as fight for freedom, failure of appeasement.

What happened in 1940?

First peacetime draft in US history.

Diplomatic Reasons for Japan Bombing of Pearl Harbour in December 1941.

• Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: imperial and expansionist desire for resource access in China, SE Asia + Pacific—> clash with Western powers inc. US

• 1941 diplomatic talks unsuccessful: Japan refuses withdrawal from China. Failed diplomacy pushes Japan to pre-emptive strike.

What was Roosevelt's reaction to the bombing of Pearl Harbour?

perfect excuse.

-Revisionist John Toland: Roosevelt knew about Jap plans to bomb PH, didn’t stop bc knew event would galvanize Americans, force US entry to war. 

Patrick Maney: “no persuasive evidence” that “Roosevelt knew in advance of the attack on Pearl Harbour” in the Roosevelt Presence: The Life and Legacy of FDR

Economic Reasons for Bombing of Pearl Harbour (Dec 1941)

• $ factors: US oil embargo in 1941 threatened to cripple Japan's war machine. needed oil access in DEI- war as solution.

• US support for and assistance to Chinese Nationalists viewed as direct interference in Japanese interests/imperialist ambitions

What was responsible for hardening of US attitudes towards Japan?

1937 Japanese brutality in Rape of Nanjing created moral opposition.

Military Reasons for Bombing of Pearl Harbour (Dec 1941)

• Hoare-Laval Note demanded withdrawal.

• Japanese militarism. PH as plan of decisive action and quick crushing blows.

• US and Japanese strategic concerns: Japan feared encircling by US, British, Dutch + Chinese forces. Japan wanted to cripple U.S Pacific fleet before it could intervene.

Impact of Pearl Harbour (Dec 1941)

• sank and disabled 19 ships, destroyed 150 planes

• 2400 American casualties

• but did not fully destroy US superiority in Pacific: aircraft carriers out at sea on training exercise. no attacks on onshore factories + oil tanks 

• ended debate over isolationism in America 

Canada Wartime Involvement 

• Canada only Americas country involved in war pre-Pearl Harbor (joined 1939)

• within two months of declaration of war: Canadian troops landed in UK to join British Expeditionary Force

• Royal Canadian Navy expanded by 1941-44 Battle of Atlantic: protected convoys and hunted U-boats

• 1942: Dieppe Raid: primarily British and Canadians. amphibious assault. over ½ of Canadian troops died.

• key role in July 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily

• Canadian airforce strategic bombing campaign against Germany as part of UK RAF

• Juno Beach on D-Day 1944

• liberating Netherlands, (1944-45): liberated Dutch civilians

What was Canada known for in the war effort?

the “breadbasket of the Allies” : massive exports.

How many Allied Aircrew members were trained in Canada as part of the British Commonwealth training plan? 

130,000

US involvement in war?

• 1942- Operation Torch- first major involvement on ground in North Africa

• 1943: Sicily and Italy - major role in planning and combat

• 1944: D-Day Landings, led assaults on Utah and Omaha beaches

• 1944-45: liberation of France + push into Germany- a critical force

What air equipment did US contribute to war?

B-17 Flying Fortress, P-51 Mustangs and P-47 thunderbolts.

What land equipment did US contribute to war?

Sherman tanks, jeeps, trucks and artillery. Also supplied equipment to Allies through Lend-Lease program. 

What sea equipment did US contribute to war?

1. Liberty ships

2. aircraft carriers

3. battleships

Why was the battle of Midway (June 1942) a T.P in the war in the Pacific according to John Keegan?

Japan as “condemned to the offensive” “the advantage the Japanese had lost could never be made good” 

Practical Reasons why US Victory in Battle of Midway was Turning Point in War

1. Japan lost numerical advantage: aircraft fleets now equal (parity)

2. US launched 14 new carriers to Japan’s 6 by 1944

3. defensive war for Japan 

Who argued that the US victory at Midway was due to ‘intelligence?’

Richard Overy.

What was Japan’s attitude towards the war in the Pacific?

1. Death as honour: ‘take no prisoners’

2. Brutality + fierce resistance

3. suicidal attempts

4. refused unconditional surrender despite America’s military superiority 

What was US strategy towards war in the Pacific?

Island hopping: capturing strategically important islands to use as bases to advance closer: avoid heavily fortified areas. + Amphibious Landings: over 60 major ones between June 1943 and July 1945. 

What was the Leyte Gulf Battle? 

Largest naval battle in history: decimated the Japanese fleet and allowed Allies to retain control over Philippines. 

What was the effect of the US Naval Blockade?

Submarine warfare and mining operations cut off Japan’s supply lines: severe resource shortages.

How many women were working outside the home between 1941-44?

Over 6 million.

How much of the workforce did women make up at Ford’s Willow Run bomber plant: Michigan?

Nearly half.

Womens’ work meant…

US could produce more than twice the war supplies of the Axis Powers combined. 

During the war, how much of the female workforce were married women with an average age of over 35?

72%

What was the most iconic image of women workers during WW2? 

Norman Rockwell’s poster: Rosie the Riveter published May 29th 1943: Saturday Evening Post 

What did Augusta Clawson: a female welder say in her book: “Ship Diary of a Woman Welder?”

“I enjoyed the work today because I could do it”

How did General Eisenhower demonstrate that women were indispensable to the D-Day effort? 

“The contribution of the women of America… to D-Day was a sine qua non of the invasion effort” 

When did US Congress est. The Women’s Auxillary Army Corp?

May 14 1942 

By 1945, how many women had served in uniform?

Approx 350,000

What did S. Terkel contend in The Good War about WW2 starting women’s equality movement in US? 

“suddenly single women were of tremendous importance… I think the beginning of the women’s movement had its seeds right there in World War Two” “taste of freedom” 

What did S. Smith contend in the Lost Victory: The Second World War and Women?

“many were forced out of work” “the nation that had so desperately needed them in a time of crisis was not ready to offer women greater social equality” 

Before 1944 African American soldiers….

were not allowed into combat in the marines.

By `1944, 1 million black workers…

had jobs in manufacturing.

Why did African Americans migrate to the north during the war?

Factory workers were needed in the industrial north ie. Chicago, Detroit and Cleveland. 1943 race riots. 

What landmark case passed in April 1944 pertaining to American civil rights? 

1944 April 3rd: Smith vs. Allwright: US Supreme Court ruled that American cannot be denied the right to vote because of colour. 

What was NAACP membership before vs. during the war? 

50,000 to 450,000. 

AA Double V. Campaign

fight fascism abroad and discrimination at home. (Origins: Pittsburgh Courier: 1 million AAs served in WW2)

Seb Charles Quote re. Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters

When the number of supporters grew to 100,000, the government became concerned. (Response: Exec Order 8802)

Exec Order 8802 Quote: FDR

“there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers… because of race, creed, colour or national origin”

Brinkley on wartime exacerbation of white supremacy

“It also inspired those who did not (believe in racial equality) to defend white supremacy with renewed ardour”

How many Hispanic Americans served in the US forces? 

over half a million. 

What did Hispanic Americans suffer? 

Discrimination, language barriers and unequal treatment, particularly in South. often denied loans, housing and college admissions. 

What was the impact of GI Bill? (1944 Servicemen’s Readjustment Act)

Allowed many Hispanic veterans access to education and home ownership, and improved socio-$ status.

Landmark piece of legislation: between 1944-56: 7.8 million veterans produced GI bill to pursue higher edu (GI generation)

Who created the American GI Forum? (est. 1948)

Veteran, Dr Hector Garcia.

What was the Longoria Affair and who drew attention to it?

Mexican American, Private Felix Longoria died during WW2: family discriminated from burying his body in Texan hometown. 

GI forum and Garcia advocated: Senator L.B.J arranged for Longoria to be interred at prestigious Arlington National Cemetery. 

What was Native American reaction to conscription/the draft?

Mixed, but many eager to sign up for military service. Involvement in US army, Navy and key campaigns in Pacific war and liberation of Germany.

Compare and Contrast the Treatment of Minorities.

African Americans = inhumanely treated- perhaps the worst.

Women = like native Americans: "new roles in skilled jobs and industry" drew them: much like women were given opportunities to fill roles. Also experienced income increase, then decrease after 1945.

Hispanic Americans = appeared to gain less respect, categorized as 'brown'

Native Americans forced to assimilate, no more tribal recognition. Whereas Hispanics were categorized and marginalized. 

How much did average Native American income increase by 1944?

by 250%. 

What was the only oral military code never to be broken by the enemy? 

Navajo. (Navajo code talkers project) 

What was the economic discrepancy between Native Americans and White Americans?

By 1945, the average N/A American salary was 25% of W/A salary. 

How did Pearl Harbour change treatment of Chinese Americans? 

Vilified to vital. 

What was the Chinese Exclusion Act replaced by?

Repealed in 1943: replaced by symbolic immigration act: 105 Chinese to enter US each year, could become naturalized citizens. 

Why were there so many Chinese American soldiers in the US army? (almost 13,500)

Bachelor society of single Chinese men in America; no dependents, so first to be drafted. 

How many men registered for the WW2 draft? 

49 million.