Grade 11 Biology Exam

Define biodiversity

the variety and number of different life forms on Earth

Three levels of biodiversity and what they are:

Species: variety and abundance of species in an area

Genetic: the biological variation that occurs within a species (genes)

Ecosystem: range of habitats, resident organisms, and relationships

What tool is "species" for scientists?

It allows them to categorise living things into different groups, which represents which living things are the same or different.

What can living things within a species do?

breed freely under natural conditions

Hybridization

When two species of plant or animal breed with one another

What is morphology, and why is it helpful?

The physical appearance.

It helps us classify naturally hybridised plants.

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot make its own food.

Autotroph

An organism that makes its own food.

The 6 types of interactions between species

- Food Supply

- Protection

- Transportation

- Reproduction

- Hygiene

- Digestion

How does loss of biodiversity affect us? (4)

- Loss of food supply

- Loss of natural and potential medicines

- Disruptions of carbon intake by biogeochemical cycles

- Economic impacts on tourism and forestry

Taxonomy

The science of classifying and identifying organisms

Carl Linnaeus

- came up with genus

- came up with binomial nomenclature

- came up with DKPCOFGS

DKPCOFGS

- Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup

- Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Binomial nomenclature rules

- Genus is capitalized

- Species is not capitalized

- Underlined if handwritten

-Italicized if typed

- Genus can be shortened

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history of a species or group of species.

Clade

A group of species that includes the ancestor and all its descendants.

Dichotomous keys

A classification system based solely on appearances.

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. (eg. archaea and eubacteria)

Eubacteria

Another term for prokaryote, used to distinguish from archea bacteria.

What are the cause of most diseases?

- Bacteria

- Viruses

- Protists

Why are microorganisms important?

They:

- recycle nutrients

- can help humans cure diseases

- autotrophs provide food for others

Similarities between Eubacteria and Archaea (4)

- Single-celled

- the organelles DON'T have membranes

- contains plasmid DNA

- found everywhere

Differences between Eubacteria and Archaea (3)

- Eubacteria tend to have more genetic information (Archae are simpler)

- Chemical differences in cell wall and cell membrane composition

- Archaea are typically extremophiles

Characteristics of Bacteria (6)

- DNA is in a single loop found in the nucleoid

- May also contain plasmids (small loop of DNA)

- scattered ribosomes

- flagella and/or pili

- cell membrane and cell wall (peptidoglycan)

- Some are surrounded by a capsule for added protection

What are the cell membrane and cell wall composed of?

Peptidoglycan: cross-links, to form a strong rigid wall

What are the three shapes of bacteria?

- Cocci (spherical)

- Bacilli (rod-shaped)

- Spirilla (spiral)

Obligate aerobe

requires oxygen (All animals are obligate aerobes)

Facultative aerobe/anaerobe

When there's oxygen they use it, and when there's not they don't need it.

Obligate anaerobe

requires the absence of oxygen

What are the two types of bacteria reproduction?

- Binary fission

- Conjugation

What are the four steps for Binary Fission?

Step 1 - The parent cell replicates its chromosome and plasmid DNA

Step 2 - The two strands of DNA migrate to opposite ends of the cell

Step 3 - The cytoplasm begins to separate, taking each piece of DNA in opposite directions

Step 4 - The cell wall and cell membranes form around each new cell

Conjugation

- considered a form of sexual reproduction

- a way that bacteria can diversify their DNA

- One bacteria passes a copy of its plasmid DNA through a pilus into another bacteria cell

What level of organisation is "Virus"

Class

Why are viruses kinda lame?

They don't have their own cellular functions, so they can't perform the basic functions that a cell can. They NEED cells to survive.

Why are viruses considered non-living? (4)

-not made out of cells

- don't grow

- can't make their own energy

- cannot reproduce on their own

Virus general structure

- A genome (a cluster of DNA or RNA)

- genome surrounded by a capsid coat made of proteins

- no cytoplasm, organelle membranes, or cell membranes

- some have a lipid envelope that encloses the virus, or glycoprotein spikes

Glycoprotein spikes

allows for attachment, fusion, and entry into host cells

Virus morphologies (4)

- helical

- polyhedral

- spherical

- complex (bacteriophage)

Bacteriophage structure

- A sheath and tail fibers

- Sheath: syringe; injects genetic material into bacterium

- Tail fibers: help the bacteriophage recognize and connect to the correct host cell

What do viruses do when they aren't invading?

Stay in an "inert state" (like hybernation)

The Lytic Cycle steps (5)

- Acronym A.E.R.A.L. (Ah E(l)RAL)

- Attachment

- Entry

(Lysogenic cycle)

- Replication

- Assembly

- Lysis

Extend on Lytic Cycle steps

1) Attatchment - the virus' glycoproteins bind to receptors on the surface of the host cell's membrane

2) Entry - the virus injects its genetic material (DNA or RNA) into the host cell

3) Replication - the host cell makes more viral DNA/RNA and proteins

4) Assembly - the new viruses are assembled inside the cell

5) Lysis - the cell ruptures allowing the new viruses to escape

Then repeat!

The Lysogenic Cycle

- an offshoot of the Lytic Cycle

- takes place between Entry and Replication

- Provirus' form: the virus' viral DNA will make itself a part of the host cell's DNA

- this step allows the virus to control parts of the host cell while staying dormant and eventually replicating (or slowly replicating)

What level of organisation is "Protists"?

Kingdom (protozoa)

Protists

- typically unicellular

- all eukaryotes (meaning they have cell organelles with membranes and segmented parts)

- DO NOT form tissues ( NO specialized cells)

Eukaryote

- domain

-An organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is DNA in the form of chromosomes contained within a distinct nucleus.

- Eukaryotes include all living organisms other than the eubacteria and archaebacteria.

What're the 4 types of protist metabolism?

1) Autotrophs

2) Heterotrophs

3) Saprotrophs

4) Parasites

Autotrophic metabolism

photosynthetic (like plants)

Heterotrophic metabolism

consume other organisms (usually through phagocytosis)

Saprotrophic metabolism

eat dead things

Parasitic metabolism

obtain nutrients from host

Red tide

An algal bloom that results in the discoloration of the water

What level of organisation is "Fungi"?

Kingdom

What relationship is common between Fungi and Plants?

Symbiotic

Benifits of fungi

- Treatments (like penicillin)

- Fermentation in food using yeast

Fruiting Body

- the reproductive structure of a fungus that contains many hyphae and produces spores

- seen above ground

Hyphae and mycellium

Hyphae:

-microscopic tubes that allow materials to pass through and into the fungus

- underground

- what the fuzz on moldy foods is made up of

Mycellium:

- the network of hyphae

What's the one unicellular fungi?

Yeast

Fungi "septum"

The internal walls that separate the cells

2 types of fungi reproduction

Sexual and Asexual

What is the more common form of fungal reproduction?

Asexual

3 forms of asexual reproduction in Fungi

1) budding

2) fragmentation

3) spores

Budding

- A form of asexual reproduction of yeast in which a new cell grows out of the body of a parent.

- nucleus pretty much replicates itself and a new vacuole is formed in the new cell

Fragmentation

A form of asexual reproduction where a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals.

Spores

The fruiting body makes a spore, which drops off and begins it's own life cycle.

Fungi sexual reproduction

1) Cells are present in hyphae, and when two hyphae meet, they both release a cell and this becomes one big mycelium (called a "dikaryotic cell")

2) As the mycelium grows, it may become a mushroom cap

3) When the mushroom cap is done growing, structures called basidia are found on the gills of the cap

4) The two original cells undergo meiosis in the basidia and spores are released

What level of organisation is "Plantae" (plants)

Kingdom

What level of organisation is Animalea (animals)?

Kingdom

Animals

- multicellular

- top of the food chain

- the first animals are thought to have emerged 800 million years ago

Characteristics of animals

- multicellular

- heterotrophs

- can develop specialized cells (Ex. nerve cells)

- coelom is only found in animals (but not all animals have it)

prokaryotes

unicellular

smaller

dna in cytoplasm

no nucleus

aseuxal

eukaryotes

muti-cellular

bigger/more complex

dna in nucleus

sexual

biological species

organisms that can naturally breed + produce fertile offspring

morpholgical species

organisms that share physical features

Phylogenetic

 a group of organisms that share a common ancestor, sharing unique sets of traits including DNA analysis 

lithotrophs

gets energy from carbon dioxide. hydrogen sulphide and methane

organotrophs

gets energy from living organisms

phototrophs

gets energy from light

antibodies

type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria

types of vaccines

1. live attenated vaccines

2. inactive vaccines

3. subit vaccines - from antigens

4. dna vaccines

gene therapy

technique that uses a gene to treat, prevent or cure a disease or medical disorder

prions

abnormal, pathogenic agents that are tranmissble. when misfolded proteins that can infect other proteins and cause fatel neurological damage

fungi

decomposers- break down plants and animal debris

endosybiotic theory

eukaryotic cells used to be archea/bacteria then early bacteria engulfed them and instead of killing them, they used them for energy

protists

1. contain their own dna in a cirrular chromosome

2. reproduce by binary fission

3. cells cannot make new ones if removed

brown algae

1. meiosis

2. spore (n)

3. mutlicellular haploid (n)

4. binary fission

5. gametes

6. fertilization

7. zygote (2n)

8. mutilcellular diploid (2n)

malaria

1. mosquito bites a human injecting plasmodium

2. infects and reproudes asexually in liver

3. invade red blood cells

4. bursts red blood cells open

5. new mosquito bites the human and the plasmodium reproudes in the mosquito

dna

the material that makes up our genetic code, found in all living organisms. has the codes for genes and is found in the nucleus. DNA is a double helix, there are two complimentary strands

genes

tells the cells what proteins to make

base nucleotides

adenine + thymine - 2 h-bonds and guanine + cytosine - 3 h-bonds

purines

adenine and guanine

pyrimidines

cytosine and thymine

the central dogma

when the dna code becomes proteins

transcription

copies a part of dna and takes it out and it becomes rna

translation

the rna gets turned into amino acids

3 bases on rna makes one amino acid

mitosis

the division of parent cells into two daughter cells - only somatic cells

they undergo mitosis to grow, repair injury or to replace dead cells

karyotyping

an individuals complete set of chromosomes

turner syndrome

missing one sex chromosome

edwards syndrome

extra chromosome 18

supermale syndrome

extra sex chromesome, y