Theme 4 Anthroposcene

What does Anthropocene refer to?

The current geological epoch characterized by significant human impact on the plant’s environment and geology.

T1: Explain the reasons for the evolution and dominance of the human species

T2:Assess the impacts humans have had on the planet and its ecosystems

T3:Describe methods that have been utilised to minimise human impact and reverse its consequences

T4:Give examples of good and bad conservation practice

T5: Discuss the future of the planet and organisms on it

Evolution of the Anthropocene

• didn’t really have steady ground and was used loosely untill 18th century ish

• said to have started when analyses of air trapped in polar ice showed the beginning of growing global concentration of carbon dioxide and methane

• was not a formally derived unit until recently

when was the new epoch deemed to begin

around 1950

what decides an antoropocene

• signal must be found globally and incorporated into deposits in the geological record

• must decide location of the start

• geological divisions are not defined by dates but but by specific boundary between layers of rock or sheets of ice

what are possible '“signals” for antoropocenes

• radioactive elements from nuclear bomb test

• unburned carbon spheres emitted by power stations

• plastic pollution

• high levels of nitrogen and phosphate in soils

• aluminium and concrete particles

Evidence for the anthropocene

• tenfold increase in human populations over last three centuries

• estimates of up to 10 billion people this century

• per capita ecological/ carbon footprint increasing

Causes of anthropocene

• carbon dioxide

• greenhouse gas

• major factor in global warming

• Atmospheric CO2 surpasses 400 ppm in 2013

• methane ( more potent GHG than CO2)

  • traps 20x more heat per unit mass than CO2

  • 32x the effect taking aerosol interaction in to account

• 16x energy increase in 20th century

• nitrogen fertilizers

• general environmental pollution

Case Study: Issues facing homo sapiens

lancet medical health journal 2017 looked into how human deaths are related to form of pollution

• pollution is the largest environmental cause of premature death

• diseases caused by pollution = around 9 million premature deaths in 2015

• 16% of death worldwide

• 15 times more than wars and all forms of violence

Where is pollution related death most prevalent?

• poor and vulnerable

• 92% is in low and middle income countries

• minorities and marginalized

• children ( in utero and out)

The pollutome and its Zones 1-3

3: inadequately characterized heath effects of emerging pollutants. Data are not included in GBD estimates or in this report

2: emerging but still not quantified in health defects

1: well characterized health effects of well studies pollutants

what are the main forms of pollution?

• air

• water

• soil

• chemical

• occupational

Types of air pollution ( often co exist)

Household

Ambient

• comprised of many of the same pollutants

what are examples of two airborne pollutants

• fine particulates

• ozone

why is air pollution so dangerous

because it disperses globally

what is PM 2.5

Air pollution consisting of particles less than 205 microns

• linked to a wide range of diseases

Two types of water pollution

Unsafe water source

Inadequate sanitation

What kind of diseases are related to water pollution

• diarrhoeal ( 70% of deaths attributed to water pollution)

• typhoid fever

• paratyphoid fever

• parasitic infections

why is pollution bad for ecosystems and organisms

• changes in timing of seasonal life cycle events

• range shifts

• food web disruptions

• pathogens, parasites, diseases

• extinctions

What are deep sea fish populations like?

• very diverse

• sometimes very old

• cannot survive when brought to surface ( making difficult to study)

How does fishing affect deep sea populations?

• declines occur in the majority of species, regardless of whether they are targets of the fishery

• any fish whose range falls <1500m can be affected and removal at this area reduces their abundance across their whole range

• As a result, the fishery impact extends to c2500m

What could we do to protect deep sea fish Biodiversity?

• More selective fishing gear

• Depth limit on most damaging types of fishing (trawling)

• use Marine protected areas

  • areas that are vulnerable and have high areas of diversity and particularly vulnerable fish

Should trawling be banned at a particular depth, and if so, what depth?

Between 600 & 800m significant increase in ecological damage

by setting the trawling depth to 600m 80 fish species would be out of reach of trawling.

How much plastic waste enters the marine environment from land based sources?

around 80% ( littering, waste sites)

only 20% originate from ocean based sources ( marine transport and commercial fishing)

Why is international environment agreement needed for effective pollution control?

currents and wind easily move plastic pollution harming countries creating said pollution, international waters, and other countries

what is the transboundary nature of marine plastics

reduced incentives for any single country because of costly control actions

What are protected areas and why are they needed?

A clearly defined geological space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long- term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.

Protected areas provide refuge for biological resources. allowing species to not go extinct. also provides baseline ecological data, protects natural processes and so on.

Threats to biodiversity include…

• Habitat loss and degradation

• species overexploitation

• invasive species and disease

• pollution

• climate change

what is one of the most destructive industries?

Food

• drives deforestation fo support beef, soy, palm oil, wood products

IA

strict nature reserve

• strictly protected for biodiversity

IB

Wilderness area

• usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas

II

National park

• large natural or near natural areas

III

National monument or feature

• a specific natural monument

IV

Habitat/ species management area

• protect particular species. or habitats sometimes use active interventions but this is not a necessary step

V

protected Landscape and protected seascape

• where interaction-of people and nature over time has produced a distinct character with significant ecological, biological, cutlural and scenic value

VI

protected area with sustainable use of resources

• areas which conserve ecosystems and are usually associated with cultural values. traditional natural resource management systems.

What are the five main conservation approaches?

Area based conservation: ( protected areas) ( OECMs)

Restoration/ Reintroduction

Control of disease

Control of invasive species

Any action to enhance a native species abundance/ function/ distribution…

What is the Convention on Biological diversity ( CBD)

multilateral, legally biding treaty between UN to promote biodiversity, sustainable use of resources and equitable sharing of benefits.

How are new protected areas established?

Simplest in areas where few people live and or receive livelihoods

-marine areas, rangelands, areas with existing restrictions in use

Often require displacement

Gov and NGOs plays large roles

what was the first national park?

Yellowstone

why are most protected areas established

NOT for biodiversity usually for scenic or geological features

Selection criteria for a protected area ( 3 ways)

species approach: protect entire biological communities and ecosystems processes by protecting particular species

• indicator and flagship species

ecosystem approach: target dynamic ecosystems and biological communities they contain instead of species

Hotspot approach: protect areas with high levels of species richness

Criteria for IUNCs threatened species ladder

1. declining population ( past present or projected)

2. geographic range size declines or fluctuates

3. small population size and fragmentation

4. very small population or very restricted distribution

5. quantitative analysis of extinction risk

Flagship species

“ selected” to act as an ambassador , icon or symbol for a defined habitat issue campaign or environmental cause

Keystone Species

a species that plays an essential role in the structure, functioning or productivity of a habitat or ecosystem. disappearance would lead to significant ecosystem change or dysfunction with know on effects on a broader scale

Indicator species

Species that provide information about the overall condition of an ecosystem.

EDGE species

evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered species

• Chinese salamander

• long beaked echidna

What is a biodiversity hotspot

region with significant levels of biodiversity that is under threat from humans

• 34 areas

What is important to remember about conservation measures?

They should actively rebuild pristine diversity rather than limit destruction.

Steller’s sea cow

Hydroamalis gigas discovered by George Steller- 18 years after finding they were extinct

Shows an example of marine exploitation as the fat they rendered from the sea cows was considered “gold”

how are marine and human histories linked?

• early exploitation of environments

• physical and physiological characteristics such as Sub Q fat, hairlessness, webbed fingers

• human pops often spread coastal

What contributed to the decline of freshwater production

• use to be abundant then migratory barriers were placed slowing flow rates ( fishing weirs, mills, aquaculture ponds)

• overfishing

• forest clearance

• collapse of FW inland fisheries across much of Northern europe in 10-15th centuries

What is ghost gear and how is it effecting the ecosystem?

Ghost gear refers to the lost traps that continue to catch marine animals.

Catch animals and kill them, major problem in the deep sea, they also take over 500 years to degrade

Six step plan to help with marine conservation

• reduce fishing capacity

• eliminate risk prone decisions by removing politicians

• remove fisheries catch quotas

• eliminate discard

• ban or restrict damaging gear

• introduce no take ares

What is the UNHST

a intergovernmental conference on marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction

• protect 30% of oceans into protected areas

• more money into marine conservation

Tropic Cascade

Ecological changes at different trophic levels in a food web, often triggered by the removal or addition of a keystone species.

Fortress conservation

An approach to conservation that focuses on establishing strictly protected areas with the exclusion of local human populations. This approach has faced criticism due to the uneven distribution of costs and benefits and concerns about human rights.

Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM)

Conservation approaches that aim to integrate conservation goals with the social and economic needs of local communities, empowering them in decision-making and sharing benefits from natural resources. The CAMPFIRE program in Zimbabwe is an early example.

why must wildlife be valued by the people who live with it and those who pay the opportunity cost for conservation?

because it often effects the poor and it may not entirely benefit the community but if it is valued among the people then they are more likely to pay cost and create a sustainable program

Wildlife Trade

The commercial exchange of wild animals and plants or their products. This can be legal and regulated or illegal and unregulated, with significant consequences for conservation. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is a key international agreement regulating this trade.

many questions arise with wildlife trade, what are they?

• can commercial exploitation help to conserve species

• does assigning a monetary value help protect or quicken demise

• when is exploitation ethically defensible

• overexploitation

Overexploitation

the unsustainable use of natural resources, including the harvesting of species at a rate faster than they can reproduce, leading to population declines.

what is consumptive utilisation

wildlife resources are renewable and therefore theoretically possible to harvest sustainably thus when highest productivity= when population growth is highest ( foods, goods, trophies, live animal trade)

what is non consumptive utilisation

productivity is usually highest when populations are at their largest size

( wildlife tourism)

Sustainable Utilisation

The use of biological resources at a rate that does not lead to their long-term decline, thereby maintaining their potential to meet the needs of present and future generations. This can include consumptive (e.g., hunting) and non-consumptive (e.g., wildlife tourism) uses.

How does harvesting affect density?

reduces density and therefore infraspecific competition. This can result in increased survival and life time fecundity of those who remain

often looking into what is the maximum sustainable yield

what are problems with the concept of a maximum sustainable yield?

often results in over exploitation. Managers should take well below the yeild even in “good years”

What is the fixed proportion strategy for harvesting?

constant proportion of taken each year, safer option as long as harvest rate does not exceed past maximum

Fixed escapement strategy ( harvesting)

Arguably the safest option, harvest only excess animals above a target threshold guaranteeing that recruitment never falls below the threshold, even if no animals are harvested in some years

Constant effort harvesting

setting a hunting season or restricting to small part of the area inhabited by the species, yield is not predictable. Not recommended for regulating quota only for efficient harvesting.

CITES appendix I

The most endangered species… Are threatened with extinction and their ability to survive may be affected by trade.

CITES Appendix II and III

II: might become endangered if trade is not controlled

III: species listed by at least one country

Types of management interventions ( for wildlife)

Targeted actions aimed at enhancing the protection and survival of endangered populations. These can include translocations and reintroductions, rescue treatments and rehabilitation, and disease prevention and control.

• Translocation and reintroduction

• rescue, treatment, and rehabilitation

• disease prevention and control

• elimination of alien species

• protection

• reproductive suppression

• supplementary feeding

• research for conservation

Translocation

• re introduction extirpated populations

• enhancing populations

• alien species removal

• problem animal control

• mitigation: reduce death caused by human activities

• commercial: game ranching

When is translocation acceptable?

• when it has intended conservation benefit

• when the harmful threat has been moved

• assessment of pros and cons of reintroductions

• risk must balance against the scale of expected benefits

• if high degree of uncertainty one should not proceed.

Problem with Translocation

• stressful

• risk of injury to animal and handler

• traps can cause harm

• social stress

• retaliatory killing

Interventions for welfare

• treatment of wound injuries

• euthanasia

• supplementary feeding

What is the Payamino project

• a long term conservation initiative between San Jose de Palino community

• aimed to protect the rainforest and bring in funding for the village thorough community based conservation

Biodiversity Loss and Extinction

The decline in the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, often leading to species extinction. The current rate of biodiversity loss is considered a crisis.

Habitat Loss and Degradation

The destruction or deterioration of natural habitats, primarily driven by human activities such as agriculture, deforestation, and urbanisation, considered the number one threat to biodiversity.

Invasive Species

Non-native species that establish and spread in a new environment, causing harm to native species and ecosystems.

Pollution

The introduction of contaminants into the environment, causing adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. This includes terrestrial, aquatic, and marine pollution.

Climate Change

Long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns, largely caused by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels.

One Health

concept that recognises the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health.

Citizen Science

The involvement of the public in scientific research, often through data collection and reporting

Spatial Management

Strategies for managing human activities in particular areas to achieve conservation goals, such as establishing depth limits for fishing.

Bycatch

The unintentional capture of non-target species during fishing activities.

Entanglement

The trapping of animals in fishing gear or marine debris.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs

Toxic chemicals that persist in the environment and can accumulate in the food chain, such as PCBs.

Disease Ecology

study of how diseases affect wildlife populations and ecosystems.

Zoonotic Diseases

Diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans.

Phenology

The study of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena, especially in relation to climate and plant and animal life.

Phenotypic Plasticity

The ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment.

Baseline

A reference point or condition against which future changes are measured in an ecosystem or population.