Early relationships

What is attachment

a long enduring, emotionally meaningful tie to a particular individual

The object of child’s attachment usually …

reciprocates emotions

• results in strong two-way emotional bond

What are the four characteristics of attachment in infancy

1. selective

• attachment behaviour focused on specific individuals

2. proximity seeking

• effort to remain close to the object of attachment

3. comforting

• proximity provides comfort & security

4. separation distress

• results when proximity cannot be achieved

Which parent is usually genetically predisposed to respond appropriately to infant’s attachment behaviour

the mother

What are the two functions of Theory of Attachment, Bowlby

biological function

• motivation to be near the parent increases likelihood of receiving care and more survival

psychological function

• provide a feeling of security

What are the four stages of attachment

1. pre-attachment (birth - 2 months)

2. attachment in the making (2 - 7 months)

3. clear cut attachment (7 - 24 months)

4. goal corrected partnership (>24 months)

What happens in pre-attachment

• predisposed behaviours:

  • grasping, crying, smiling, eye-contact

  • brings adult into contact with infant & maintain contact

• indiscriminate social responsiveness, accept care from anyone

What happens in attachment in the making

• child responds differently to caregiver vs. stranger:

  • babbles & laughs more readily with caregiver

  • more easily comforted by caregiver

• recognise familiar people but still accept care from anyone

What happens in clear cut attachment

• major change

  • proximity seeking: separation protest, wariness of strangers, no longer accept care from unfamiliar people

  • develops person permanence (when people continue to exist when out of sight)

• requires ability to recall representation of person from memory

• recall ability develops after recognition ability

What happens in goal corrected partnership

child’s improving representation abilities allow:

• understand factors influencing temporary absence of caregiver

• negotiation (e.g. ask parent to play before leaving)

• child can accommodate mother’s needs

• manipulation of parent (e.g. deliberate crying for proximity)

What did Bowlby argued that

maternal deprivation causes social and cognitive deficits

Describe Goldfarb (1947) study on maternal deprivation

• compared 30 children separated from mother before 9 months

  • 15 children fostered early, before 9 months

  • 15 children institutionalised then fostered at age 3.5 years

• assessed at age 10-14 years

What did the study on maternal deprivation, Goldfarb (1947) find

institutionalised children had deficits:

• intelligence, speech, reading, maths

• restless, low concentration, fearful, craved adult attention, unpopular with peers

Describe what Bowlby cited evidence of long-term maternal deprivation deficits from primates, Harlow (1958, 1969)

• Rhesus monkeys separated from mother

• 3 groups raise in isolation for either:

  • 3 months

  • 6 months

  • 12 months

• released from isolation, placed with other monkeys

What were the results from Bowlby cited evidence of long-term maternal deprivation deficits from primates, Harlow (1958, 1969)

all groups showed social maladjustment, aggression, withdrawal

• if isolated < 3 months, can recover

• if isolated > 3 months, irreversible effects

  • usually unable to mate in adolescence

  • abused their babies

What are three criticisms against maternal deprivation

• confounding factors

• deficits can be reversed

• deficits do not always occur

Describe what the criticism ‘confounding factors’ for maternal deprivation means

• institutional care studies and primate studies confounded MD with social and sensory deprivation

• care institutions often have high staff turnover, so child cannot form any attachment

• MD resulting from institutionalisation/divorce/separation, childhood problems may result instead from hostility in the home

Describe what the criticism ‘deficits can be reversed’ for maternal deprivation means, Suomi & Harlow (1972)

• deficits in monkeys raised in isolation for 6 & 12 months can be reversed if a younger monkey is placed with them

• effects of MD not irreversible

• peer relationships can be as important as mothers

Describe what the criticism ‘deficits do not always occur’ for maternal deprivation means

many children are maternally deprived but do not later exhibit cognitive deficits or social maladjustment

What did Bowlby’s theory advocate

• infants are genetically predisposed to form an attachment to one person

• infants are initially incapable of forming attachment to several people

• all later attachments are minor compared with the primary one

• childcare involving multiple caregivers is potentially detrimental

Do children initially form just one attachment, Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

• interviewed mothers: to whom do infants show separation protest

• studied 60 infants during first 18 months of life

• at onset of attachment:

  • 1/3 directed attachment behaviour to more than one person

  • 1/3 directed attachment to someone other than mother

• at 18 months:

  • most attached to several individuals

  • mother not always primary attachment figure

What did Mead (1962) point out about multiple attachments

multiple attachments are beneficial in case of parental loss

Bowl’s theory advocated a critical period for attachment which was

attachment relationships cannot be formed after 2.5 years

• if attachments are prevented before age 2.5, the child will develop an ‘affection less character’

What did Tizard (1977) do

• studied children adopted later than 2.5 years

  • children were institutionalised a few weeks after birth

  • cared for by a large group (prevented attachments from forming)

• ability to form relationships assessed at 8 and 16 years

• found that most relationships were good and developed strong emotional bond with foster parents

no evidence of critical period of ‘affection less character’

Studies of strange situation test (SST), Ainsworth, identities 4 major types of attachment behaviour:

• secure attachment

• insecure attachment

• insecure-resistant

• insecure-diagnosed

Describe what happens in Secure (type B) attachment behaviour

at reunions with mother:

• actively maintain proximity to mother

during separation from mother:

• distress due to mother’s absence

• secure children are most common

• believed to represent healthiest psychological development

Describe what happens in Insecure-avoidant (type A) attachment behaviour

at reunions with mother:

• child avoids proximity or interaction with mother

• may ignore mother

or

• may mix welcoming behaviour with avoidance behaviour (e.g. gaze aversion)

during separation from mother:

• no distress

or

• distress during to being left alone not due to mother’s absence in particular

Describe what happens in insecure-resistant (type C) attachment behaviour

• clings to mother rather than exploring

• separation from mother produces a lot of distress

at reunions with mother:

• child resists contact and interaction with mother

• mix of seeking contact and resistance

Describe what happens in insecure-diagnosed (type D) attachment behaviour

• disoriented and disorganised behaviour

• no clear pattern

• no coherent system for coping with separation/reunion

• parent mental illness, child abuse

What are the 4 criticisms of the strange situation test on attachment behaviour

artificial situation

• unfamiliar surroundings

• caregiver is aware of being observed

confounding psychological factors

• psychological factors other than attachment type

  • e.g. susceptibility to stress in general

choice of attachment figure

• danger in classifying children based on attachment to the caregiver in the study

is it relevant to all cultures?

What were the developments to attachment theory

attachment goes beyond infancy/early childhood

• concept of attachment expanded from infancy to lifespan

• as child matures, attachment becomes more sophisticated

What did Bowlby’s internal working models (IWMs) suggest

• individuals form IWM of attachment relationship

• cognitive constructs forms when child is capable of symbolic thought

• represents memories and feelings about attachment figure

• provides expectations about relationships

• guides behaviour towards attachment figure

How does an infant develop their attachment style

through interaction between maternal sensitivity and child temperament

What are the implications of non-secure attachment at school (Erickson et al., 1985)

insecurely attached infants at 5 months had poorer social skills and adjustment, hostile, impulsive, and withdrawn

What are the implications towards resilience from secure attachment

securely attached children demonstrated reactions that were less negative to period of high family stress in middle school and during teenage years

What was Main & Goldwyn (1982) interview on adult attachment designed for

to probe internal representations of attachment

What were the questions in Main & Goldwyn (1982) interview based on

questioned about early childhood experiences

What was gathered from Main & Goldwyn (1982) interview

• autonomous

  • well balanced, objective recall of attachment relationships

• dismissive

  • claim attachment relationships are unimportant and can recall little

• enmeshed

  • still dependent on and preoccupied with pleasing parents

• unresolved

  • experienced trauma relating to attachment figure (e.g. death), not yet able to determine feelings about relationship

Are attachment types stable over time, Booth-LaForce & Roisman (2014)

815 participants assessed in infancy and at 18 years

• secure attachment at 15 months; 61% autonomous in adulthood

• insecure attachment at 15 months; 57% autonomous in adulthood

• 39% of securely attached infants; not securely attached as adults

predicted by women, lower levels and greater decline in maternal sensitivity, lower likelihood of living with father and larger increase in negative life events over time

• women in the sample were more likely than men to experience changes in attachment security over time