General Psychology – Introductory Survey

Vocabulary flashcards covering key psychological terms, theories, brain structures, research methods, and developmental concepts from the lecture notes.

Assumption (Uncritical Acceptance)

A belief taken for granted without supporting evidence, often rooted in superstition or stereotype.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Scientific Observation

Objective, systematic collection of measurable data about behavior or phenomena.

Introspection

Self-reflection and reporting of conscious mental experiences; considered subjective.

Gestalt Psychology

Approach claiming that conscious experience is an integrated whole greater than the sum of its parts.

Structuralism

Early school of thought aiming to break mental processes down into basic components via introspection.

Functionalism

Psychological perspective emphasizing the purpose and adaptive value of behavior and mental processes.

Cognitive Unconscious

Mental processes occurring outside awareness that nonetheless influence thoughts and behavior.

Behaviorism

School that rejects introspection and focuses on observable, measurable behavior.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s model stressing unconscious drives and early childhood influences on personality.

Psychodynamic Theory

Modern refinement of psychoanalysis that highlights social and interpersonal motives along with unconscious forces.

Humanistic Psychology

Perspective emphasizing free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Determinism

View that behavior is controlled by internal or external forces rather than choice (e.g., behaviorism, psychoanalysis).

Free-Will Perspective

Belief that humans can choose their actions (championed by humanistic psychology).

Self-Actualization

The process of realizing and fulfilling one’s potential and capabilities.

Positive Psychology

Field inspired by humanistic ideals that studies well-being, strengths, and optimal functioning.

Cognitive Psychology

Branch studying mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and language.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how a variable is measured or manipulated, enabling replication.

Social Perspective (on Behavior)

View that individual behavior is shaped by groups, culture, and situational context.

Cultural Relativity

Principle that behavior must be understood relative to cultural norms and values.

Gender Bias

Systematic error in research or theory that favors one gender over another.

Biological Perspective

Psychological approach focusing on neuroscience, genetics, and physiology to explain behavior.

Biopsychology

Field examining links among brain, bodily processes, and behavior (e.g., dopamine and movement).

Biopsychosocial Model

Integrative framework combining biological, psychological, and social influences on behavior and health.

Critical Thinking

Reasoning process involving curiosity, skepticism, objectivity, and reliance on evidence.

Scientific Method

Orderly steps: Question → Hypothesis → Test → Analyze → Report → Repeat.

Descriptive Research

Non-experimental methods (observation, survey, case study) that describe but cannot establish cause.

Correlation

Statistical relationship between variables; does not imply causation.

Experiment

Research design manipulating an independent variable to determine causal effects on a dependent variable.

Correlation Coefficient

Number from –1 to +1 indicating strength (|r|) and direction (+/–) of a relationship.

Directionality Problem

In correlational studies, inability to know which variable influences the other.

Independent Variable (IV)

Factor intentionally manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

Outcome measured to assess the effect of the IV.

Extraneous Variable

Uncontrolled factor that could influence the DV; must be held constant or monitored.

Control Group

Participants receiving no treatment or a baseline condition for comparison.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the independent variable or treatment.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to equalize pre-existing differences.

Quasi-Experiment

Study lacking random assignment; offers less control over confounding variables.

Participant Bias

Changes in participants’ behavior due to their expectations about the study.

Researcher Bias

Experimenter’s expectations influencing participants or data interpretation.

Single-Blind Study

Participants are unaware of group assignment, reducing participant bias.

Double-Blind Study

Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments, reducing bias on both sides.

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to expectation of benefit rather than the treatment itself.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When expectations cause individuals to act in ways that bring about the expected outcome.

Somatic Nervous System

Division controlling voluntary skeletal muscle movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

Division regulating involuntary organs and glands.

Reflex Arc

Simple neural pathway mediating automatic response via spinal cord, bypassing the brain.

Sympathetic Division

Branch of autonomic system activating fight-or-flight responses.

Parasympathetic Division

Branch of autonomic system promoting rest, digestion, and calming functions.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger released at synapses to influence neighboring neurons.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

Chemical that increases the likelihood a neuron will fire an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

Chemical that decreases the likelihood a neuron will fire.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement and reward; excess linked to schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter regulating mood, appetite, and sleep; low levels linked to depression.

Neuropeptide

Small protein-like chemical (e.g., endorphins) modulating mood, pain, hunger.

Plasticity

Brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections after experience or injury.

Neurogenesis

Growth of new neurons in the brain.

Neurological Soft Sign

Subtle behavioral clue (e.g., clumsiness) indicating possible brain dysfunction.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

Imaging technique measuring brain activity via blood oxygen changes.

MRI / CT Scan

Structural imaging methods that map brain anatomy (MRI uses magnets; CT uses X-rays).

PET Scan

Technique that visualizes brain activity by tracking radioactive glucose.

Lateralization

Specialization of brain hemispheres: left (language/logic), right (spatial/emotion).

Prefrontal Cortex

Frontmost brain area responsible for decision making, planning, and impulse control.

Frontal Lobe

Region controlling voluntary movement and higher cognitive functions.

Parietal Lobe

Region processing bodily sensations such as touch and temperature.

Occipital Lobe

Rear brain region dedicated to vision.

Temporal Lobe

Region involved in hearing, language comprehension, and memory.

Agnosia

Inability to recognize or interpret sensory information despite intact senses.

Aphasia

Language impairment due to brain damage (e.g., Broca’s or Wernicke’s area).

Mirror Neuron

Neuron that fires both when performing and when observing an action; linked to empathy.

Reticular Formation

Brainstem network regulating alertness and attention.

Cerebellum

Structure managing balance, coordination, and fine motor control.

Medulla

Brainstem area controlling vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

Brainstem region involved in sleep and coordinating movement between hemispheres.

Thalamus

Forebrain relay station directing sensory information to appropriate cortex areas.

Hypothalamus

Structure governing hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormonal regulation.

Amygdala

Limbic structure central to emotion, especially fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Limbic structure essential for forming new long-term memories.

Cingulate Gyrus

Limbic region involved in emotion regulation and cognitive processing.

Pineal Gland

Endocrine gland producing melatonin to regulate sleep-wake cycles.

Pituitary Gland

‘Master’ endocrine gland controlling growth and other glands’ secretions.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland regulating metabolism via thyroid hormones.

Adrenal Glands

Glands atop kidneys secreting adrenaline and cortisol for stress response.

Developmental Psychology

Study of physical, cognitive, and social change across the lifespan.

Temperament

Innate aspects of personality, such as easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up behavioral styles.

Infant Physical Milestones

Typical timeline: roll over (~4 mo), sit (~6 mo), walk (~12 mo).

Early Puberty Effects

Early-maturing boys gain confidence; early-maturing girls often experience anxiety.

Social Smile

First genuine smile in response to others, emerging at ~6 weeks of age.

Stranger Anxiety

Distress shown by infants around unfamiliar people, typically starting ~8 months.

Secure Attachment

Pattern where infant is comforted by caregiver’s return after separation.

Avoidant Attachment

Pattern where infant is indifferent or distant toward caregiver.

Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment

Pattern where infant shows clinginess yet difficulty being comforted due to inconsistent caregiving.

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth and reasonable control; linked to best child outcomes.

Authoritarian Parenting

Low warmth, high control; often produces obedient but less happy children.

Permissive Parenting

High warmth, low control; may lead to impulsive behavior.

Neglectful Parenting

Low warmth and low control; associated with poorest developmental outcomes.

Kohlberg’s Moral Stages

Sequence: preconventional, conventional, postconventional moral reasoning.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Eight crises from trust vs. mistrust (infancy) to integrity vs. despair (late adulthood).

Emerging Adulthood

Developmental period from ~18–25 characterized by exploration and instability.

Ageism

Stereotyping or discrimination against people because of their age.