learning unit ap psychology 2025

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response UCR).

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as food in the mouth).

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus.

generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.

taste aversion

the association of the taste of a food or fluid with an aversive stimulus (usually gastrointestinal discomfort or illness), leading to a very rapid and long-lasting aversion to, or at the least a decreased preference for, that particular taste.

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

continuous reinforcement

in operant and instrumental conditioning, the reinforcement of every correct (desired) response.

partial reinforcement

in operant or instrumental conditioning, any pattern of reinforcement in which only some responses are reinforced.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

vicarious conditioning

the conditioning of an animal to perform an act that it observes in a member of the same or a different species.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.