Unit 3A - Learning

AP psych Unit 3

Behavioral Perspective

Examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions with the environment.

Learned Helplessness

A belief that one has no control over their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events, leading to feelings of passivity and lack of effort to change the situation.

Social Learning Theory

theory that emphasizes the importance of observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors, as well as the role of cognitive processes, in learning from others within social contexts.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating the behaviors of others.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura demonstrated that young children would imitate the violent and aggressive actions of an adult 

• Children observed a film in which an adult repeatedly hit a large, inflatable balloon doll. After viewing the film clip, children were allowed to play in a room with a real Bobo doll just like the one they saw in the film

Vicarious Conditioning

 Learning by observing the consequences of others' actions, without directly experiencing those consequences oneself.

Insight Learning

A sudden understanding of a problem or situation that leads to a solution without prior trial and error, often accompanied by a feeling of "aha" or realization.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or motivation, but is not demonstrated until there is a reason to do so.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of spatial relationships or layouts, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their environment.

Operant Conditioning

 A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Skinner Box

• ____ designed an operant chamber, popularly known as a __________ 

• The chamber was essentially a box that could hold a small animal such as a rat or pigeon

• The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward

Reinforcement “Repeat”

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.

Primary Reinforcers

Things we naturally like, such as food or water.

Secondary Reinforcers

Things we learn to like because they're connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like.

ex. Money, paise, grades in school, points, applause, trophies or medals.

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

Presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

• An "A" on your well written paper

• Give your child dessert when they eat their vegetables

• You get your allowance only after you complete your weekly chores

• You receive a merit raise at work for doing your job well

• Making a goal in basketball after using correct form

• You receive a kiss for bringing your girlfriend flowers

• Feeling good after working at a soup kitchen

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

• Class does well so they don’t have homework

• Being able to exempt your finals if you have an A in the class

• You clean up your room so your mom will stop nagging you about it

• Smoking a cigarette makes the craving for nicotine go away

• Wearing sunglasses to avoid/remove the glare of the sun

• Stretching to avoid a sports injury

• Follow the laws to avoid jail

• Studying for an exam reduces stress

Punishment “Prevent”

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

• An employee's inappropriate behavior at work stops after being criticized by a supervisor

• Tim thinks he is sneaky and tries to text in class. He is caught and given a 4 hour Saturday detention

• The teacher yells "stop talking!" in the middle of the lecture to the class and all the other students glare at the offenders

• Receiving a ticket for speeding in your car

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

• Teacher takes a student's cell phone away in class

• Refuse to be affectionate toward your partner when they forget your anniversary

• Teenager loses their cell phone for talking back to mom

• Dog jumps on you when you return home.  You turn your back on the dog and ignore him

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior, leading to the development of a complex behavior or skill.

Instinctive Drift

Animals may go back to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training (operant conditioning).

Superstitious Behavior

Accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes, even when they are not.

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns determining when and how often reinforcement is given for a behavior, influencing the rate and persistence of that behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding.

Fixed Interval “FI”

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a predictable pattern of behavior.

• Checking the clock as the end of class nears

Post-Reward Pause

 Initially, there is little to no response after a reward is given, as additional responses won't lead to immediate reinforcement.

Increasing Response Rate

As the time for the next reward approaches, response rate increases, peaking just before the reward becomes available.

behavioral dynamics

This pattern forms a "scalloped" curve on a graph, illustrating how anticipation of reinforcement influences response timing, with subjects optimizing their efforts based on the expected timing of rewards.

Variable Interval “VI”

Reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a steady but moderate rate of responding.

• Checking cell phone for text messages when phone is on silent

Fixed Ratio “FR”

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with short pauses after each reinforcement.

• Getting a snack after reading every 30 page

Variable Ratio “VR”

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high and steady rate of responding with minimal pauses.

• Selling door to door.  The number of doorbell ringing behavior will hopefully be rewarded after a variable number of rings

Associative Learning

A process of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together.

• Classical Conditioning (Association)

• Operant Conditioning 

(Reinforcement & Punishment)

Habituation (Non-Associative Learning)

occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus.

• Simple breakdown = getting used to something over time.

Classical Conditioning

A learning method where we associate two stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning needed.

• Another way to say "stimulus" is "trigger" or "signal".

Unconditioned Response (UR)

 A natural and automatic reaction to a stimulus that occurs without any prior learning or conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, evokes a __________ response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

 A learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented, resulting from the association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

the initial learning of an association.

Extinction

The process in which the conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, suggesting that extinction does not erase the association but suppresses it temporarily.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli, resulting in those stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response.

• Layering of associations = ______________

Counterconditioning

Changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience.

Taste Aversion

A learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing.

Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment

Controversial classical conditioning experiment on an infant boy called “________.” Watson was interested in examining the effects of conditioning on the fear response in humans

• The child initially showed no fear of a white rat, but after the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary sounds (hammer on a metal bar), the child would cry when the rat was present

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things.

Biological Preparedness

The innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food and danger.