piaget, bowlby, ainsworth, lifespan, brain imaging tech

Jean Piaget’s theory

recognised that children’s cognition differs to that of adults and that as children mature, their intellectual skills change

schemata

experiences of the world organised as mental structures

schemata in infant

Piaget believed that infants aare born with few schemata based on innate reflexes like sucking and rooting. soon after birth, infants start to develop schemata based on the interaction between sense and motor skills, and schemata utilises cognitive skills.

cognitive development involves

the growth and interrelating of schemata that occurs through the processes of assimilation and accomodation

assimilation

integrating new information into existing schemata without the schemata being altered

accomodation

changing existing schemata to integrate new info or the creation of a new schema when integration is not possible

• most new info dealt with.using assimilation, which mainttains state of equilibrium as no schemata has been altered

• exposed to new info = disequilibrium, mismatch between new + prior is dissatistgyin

  • accomdation stretched schemata or creates new schema if information differs too greatly to be amlgamatedqq

how is new info exposure deat with?

most new info an individual is exposed to can be dealt with using process of assimilation alone.

gathered through interacting with world, individuals are kept in a state of balance of equilibrium

no cognitive changes occur because schemata has not been altered

but, when exposed to new info and unable to assimilate it into an existing schema, state of disequilibrium, mental imbalance is experienced

mismatch between prior knowledge and new info is instinctively dissatisfying.

to return to equilibrium state, process of accomodation “stretches” existing schemata by incorporating conflicting info or creates schema if info differs too greatly to be amalgamated.

this involves cognitive change

adaptation in Piaget’s terms

continual natural drive to seek equilibrium through assimilation and accomodation, causing intellectual growth

equillibrium

the state experienced when existing schemata (based on prior knowledge) can account for new information

disequillibrium

the state experienced when existing schemata are unable to account for new information

stages and developmental changes

Piaget suggested that children move through 4 stages and in order to pass from one stage to the next, they need to be physically mature and exposed to appropriate experiences

exposure allows to reach to full potential

each child regardless of culture passes through stages without going back, except due to brain damage

numerous accomplishments need to be made in order to move to the next stage

stages

sensorimotor

preoperational

concrete operational

formal operational

sensorimotor

0-2

fine and gross motor skills are used with a combination with the senses

accomplishment: object permanence

object permanence: understanding that an object still exists even if it cannot be touched or seen.

object permanence test

having child watch an object being covered with tea towel

if they lift it up to retrieve the object, they understand that it still exists even if it is not visible

testing object permanence with invisible displacement

extension of simple test previously described

child witnesses object being covered by container and then it being swapped with a second, empty container

child lifts cup covering object, they were able to track item and have accomplished advanced version of object permanence

pre-operational stage

2-7

children use symbols to represent ideas, such as through language, and engage in pretend place

symbolic thinking: the use of symbols such as words or objects to represent alternative concepts (e.g pretend cake with mud)

centration: the ability to only focus on one aspect of a situation at any given time, while disregarding the rest (child focusing on the number of biscuits she and her friend have but not the size of the biscuits)

seriation: the ability to arrange a colleciton of items or situations in a logical series

characteristics identified

• egocentrism: the inability to understand the perspective of another person

• animism: the belief that an inanimate object is alive and has feelings

testing centration

two rows of coins, both with. same number

ask if both rows have same number or if one has more or less

slide top row horizontally so they are further apart

ask again if both rows are qual. child in preop stage will tell u that top row has more, because they are unable to comprehend that number of coins has not changed just because they were moved further apart (conservation).

centration has prevented the child from focusing on one+ concept at a time. can only focus on space the coins in the row take up, assuming there must be more coins irrespective of the fact that none were added.

testing seriation

a child could be provided with collection of objects and asked to order them according to size,

testing egocentrism: three mountains task

child is shown model of mountain range consisting of one topped with snow, one with a hut on top, one with a cross on top. child is asked to walk around it and look at is closely

experimentor places a doll facing model in multiple locations, and for each location, child is shown ten pics of various views of model then asked to select the picture that shows how the doll would view it

child continually selects picture that matches their own views, then they are unable to consider viewpoint other than their own so they are egocentric

concrete operational

7-11

children begin to reason about mathematics and can perform concrete operations and start to grasp the concept of conservation

conservation: mass and volume remain unchanged when the form of an object is altered

how are centration and conservation related

children who focus their full attnetion on one aspect of a situation annd disregard the rest would find it difficult to grasp the notion that changing papearance of substance does not alter its basic properties

testing conservation of mass

while child is watching, make two ball sof plasticine of same size. asking if one ball is made of more or the same amount. role one into nsake shape and ask if either is made up of of more or the same

if they say they are the same, then they have accomplished conservation of mass

testing conservation of volume

while child is watching, pour the same amount of liquid into two short glasses of the same size

ask if one glass has more than the other or if thye have the same

pour one glass of liquid into a tall, skinny glass. ask child if one glass has more or the same

if the child says that skinny tall glass and short wide one has same, they have accomplished conservation of volume

formal operational stage

11+ years

children begin to make predictions by reasoning out what might occur, as well as imagining hypothetical possibilities

abstract thinking: using the mind to visualise and consider complex concepts that are not tangible.

testing abstract thinking

test demonstration of logical reasoning

tasked with working out which of the followign causes a penendulum to swing at different rates: mass hanging from string, legnth of string, or height at which is released

when child selected deendent variable and can use abstract thinking to hypothesise what will occur when alt indepenent variables are systematically tested one at a time, then abstract logical reasoning has been demonstrated.

strengths of theory

providing understanding of difference between way child and adults learn helped shaped education

education tends to be based on cognitive developmental stages, so more suitable catering to developmental needs

great deal of cognitive developemtn research has since taken place, largely inspired by Piaget’s findings

Limitations

criticised language in tasks, statign that the repetivie questions beign asked by experiemnter may caus children to wonder why they are being asked the question over and over fi the answer has not changed

does not give feedback to child as to wehther they responded appropriately. child assumes first response is incorrect and changes it to please experimenter, so cognitive competence is underestimated due to social pressure

sample of children used to develop 4 stages were his own three children and children of his collegues, all of which were well educated and of high socioeconomic status. results cant be generalised

Applications of theory

can be applied to childrens education regarding learning strageies and educational programs

measurement of individual student understanding as oppposed to measiring student performance as a part of combined peer group taks is an example of Piaget’s influence of education

still pictures

single static images that are two dimensional

CT AND MRI

dynamic pictures

3D images that change in real time

• fMRI

Strucutral imaging

neuroimageing techniques that produce scans showing brain structure

• CT + MRI structural details such as tussye damage, brain atrophy, fluid filled spaces, bleeds, size and location in tumours

functional imaging

neuroimaging techniques producing scans showing brain function

• fMRI

temporal resolution

ability to detect when brain activitty occured

• greater ability to detect rapid changes = higher temp res

• (EEG, can show within milliseconds)

• high temp can indicate when the activation occured

spatial resolution

ability to differentiate which specific part of the brain is active

• eeg has high temp, low spat

• high spat res = fMRI, can pinpoint the location of neural activity with millimeter precision (low temp res)

EEG

electroencephalogram

• functional technique, shows brain activity in real time

how EEG works

electrodes placed on scalp

electrical activity (brain waves) detected then carried via wires to EEG recording machine where displayed

electrical changes within thousands of neurons detected at same time

uses

• diagnosing epilepsy

• sleep research

• which part being utilised during mental tasks

• confirmation of brain dead

strengths

high temp res (can detect rapid changes in brain waves)

safe and non-invasive

limitations

low spat res, (precise location of activity is not clear

• conducive gel increases temp res, decreases spat res as does scalp, skull, thick membrane

• messy due to conductive gel

CT

Computed Tomography

• structural neuroimaging technique

• produces still pictures

how it works

rotating x ray beam moves 360 around patient

takes multipe x ray images

computer pieces many 2d x rays and produces 3d reconstruction that tech can scroll through

uses

fractures in skull (better defines bone structures)

diagnose brain tumours + size of brain tumour

assess brain injury from trauma (bleeds, fluid filled spaces)

strengths

• patients with metals can have scan (such as aneurysm clips

• can image bone, soft tissue and blood vessels at same time

limitations

exposed to ionising radiation (increases risk of cancer later on)

not suitable for pregnant women as radiation can damage fetus

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging

structural that produces still pictures

how it works

strong magnetic field and radio waves

lines up the protons in hydrogen atoms then short bursts of radiowaves tip protons out of alignment

protons realign = release radio signals that are detected in scanner

different structures = different signals to be distinguished in pics

uses

• diagnose brain tumours

• measure size of brain tumour

• assess stroke effects

• asses brain injury from trauma

strenghts

more detailed than those formed in CT scans (can see soft tissues like brain tumours)
does not expose patient to ionising radiation (safer for pregnant women but not recommened during first trimester where organs are still forming)

limitations

cant have metal on body

loud banging noises and ear protection

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging

• functional that produces dynamic pictures

how it works

strng magnetic field + radiowaves to show where neurons are consuming oxygen in the brain in real time

• scanner creates 3D map of brain broken up into volume blocks called voxels

• when neurons communicate with each other through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters, energy i sused.

• oxygen rushes to area through blood causeing voxel to change colour and becom ered, and voxel colour returns to normal once the blood stops rushing oxygen to active neyrons

• scanner detects colour change cos high oxy blood = more iron, more attracted to magnets

• difference in magnetism is shown as shades of light and dark called bold signal (blood oxygen level dependent signal)

• higher bold = < oxygen level in blood

uses

show part of the brain active when performing task

help plan for tumour removal surgrey (when patient asked to do tasks that causes changes to areas of brain responsible for speech, surgeon can map where area is an avoid it)

assess effects of stroke

brain activity of patients with neurological conditions

strenghts

high enough spat res to determine location of neural activity down to few cubic meters

does not expose to ionising ratiatio

limitations

no metal

temporal res lower than ct and eeg, meaning scans take longer to detect changes in enural activity because bold signal relies on body response to metabolic changes

takes about 2 seconds

adaptive plasticity

ability of neural connections to reorganise themselves in response to learning new information, compensate ofr lost function and take advantage of remain gfunctions

• brocas aphasia patient may have spontaneous speech function be diminished at dfirst, over the next few months his brain will experienced heightened plasticity

developmental plasticity

the ability of neural connections in the brain to reorganise in response to sensory input from the environment

• baby practicing motor skills

plasticity

the ability of neural connections to grow and reorganise

steps in plasticity

proliferation

migration

circuit formation

synaptic pruning

myelination

proliferation

growth and division of cells (e.g neurons) that leads to increase in cell number

• most are already formed, some are created during infancy

migration

newly generated neurons move throughout the brain until reaching their final position, allowing for connections between neurons to be made

• migrate via chemical traisl moved by other neurons

• moving along scaffoldding fibres in brain

ends at 5 motnhs

circuit formation

neurons make neural circuits with neurons by sending electrochemcal messages nbetween each other

• within clusters

• larger distances

develop rapidly in primary sensory and primary visual

synaptic pruning

infants born with more neurons than required, so ones that odnt form active connecitions with others just die

• increases efficiency by allowing remaining connections to strengthen and grow in complexity

myelination

myellin starts growing over axons of neurons, insualing neural connections and allowing faster and more efficient nerve impulse travel throughout brain

contributes to dramatic brain growth

begins in spinal cord, hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain , peripheral neervous system

amygdala during adolescence

amygdala: collection of nuclei deep within each. temporal lobe

plays a role in emoitonal response and immeidate behavioural reactions as response to emotion

• grows in volume (could be due to puberty)

• as PF still developing, so are connections between the to

• instead of PF leading actions based on rational and logical thinking, volatile amygdala guides automatic actions

• highly reactive to emotional stimuli, like facial expressions and stressful situations

• more likely to misinterpret things, and get into accidents and behave inappropriately

prefrontal cortex during adolescence

PFC: layer of frontal lobes just beneath forehead that continues to undergo myelination during adolescence to an increase in white matter

• synaptic pruning occurs during adolescence, reducing grey matter andf allowing increasign complex and efficienct connections to be made

• SP begins at back and ocmes forward with being the last to develop

• region responsible for problem solving, risk aassessment, attention and consequence prediction.

• allows understanding of why teens do not seem to assess potential risks + risky situations

attachment

strong emotional connection between an infant and their main attachment figure

theory of attachment time

1969, 1988

bowlby’s monotropic theory

children have biological need to form bond with one main attachemnt figure

most important bond

usually with mother

mother also has biological need to be close to them

monotropy

attachment with only one attachment figure

bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis

theorised that the first 2 ½ years = critical for forming attachment with main attachment figure

failure to form connection = difficulty forming attachment later on

critical period

lifespan stage during whihc individuals are more sensivity to environmental influences and normal development relies on these particular life experiences occuring

maternal deprivation

consequences an individual experiences when they are seperated from mother/substitute as a child

attachment is prevented from occuring

• intellectual development may bee delayed, evident in abnormally low iq

• emotional development may be affected, especially empathy (aka affectionless psuchopath)

• difficulty forming social relationships (e.g intimate relationships later on)

internal working model

• how are they formed

• what is their impact

• why are they called internal working model

• what do they guide

• what does an accurate one lead to

• during daily interactions with primary caregivers during first few yeasr, children develop internal working models of primary caregivers/themselves/others

• impact they have on cognition, emotions, behaviour are outside of the childs concious awareness

• mental represenations and are called internal working models becaause they serve as template, model for wat relationships are like

• guide way

  • child responds

  • approach towards new relationships

  • emotional and social behaviour

• accurate internal working models of their immediate world = insight they need and will therefore be better prepared for interacting with wider society in real world when older

three internal working models

internal working model of others

internal working model of self

internal working model of relationship between self and others

internal working model of others

age of 5, children have learned great deal about caregivers and now have internal working model of likes, dislikes, characteristcs

internal working model of self

child creates positive internal working model where they believe they are worthy of love and comfort due to their caregivers

negative one is formed when caregivers consistently rrejected child and ignored needs, making them believe the oppostie

internal wokring model of relationship with self and others

child bases future relationships with other people on their first relationships with primary caregivers

• differ for varying caregivers (internal working model between relationship of child and mother but different with gma)

defines their expectations of furture relationships, unconcious expectations such as respect and reliability, demonstrates same qualities as attachment figure

evollutionary perspective of bowlby

prupose of attachment between human infant + main attachment figure was to

• protect from predators

• allow survival of species

supported thru observations of isolated birds + mammals that are more likely to be attacked by predator than others of same species

• attachment figure = who they believe will reliably and promptly come to aid when required

• failure of attachment fgirure to repsond causes extreme stress and tauma

strenghts

• research on attachment and maternal deprivation led to numerous orphan studies that allowed for improved conditions of those left in such institiudtions

• internal working model provides strong reasoning for relationships that adults form. clear to see how first attachments = produced template used for forming health relationships

limtations of theory

believed mother was primary caregiver, tho ajority of societies around world are observed to have multiple attachment figures invovled

evidence suggests that in many instances, high quality aftercare allowed indiviudals who failed to form attachemnt in firts 2 ½ years to fullt recover. critical should be called sensitive

critical = specific life instances to occur for normal development, sensitive = stages in life whereby effects that experiences have on brain are stronger than usual. normal development is still possible even if required life epxeriences do not occur during sensitive periods

application of theory to real world context

understandning of how maternal deprivation affects childs ability to develop can help inform social wworkers to provide education and resources to families in ordet to support them in providing healthy attachment figures for children

strange situation to measure attachment

1978

• ainsworth developed three types of attachment

• beleives that type of attachment relationship formed between mother and child depended on how sensitve and responsive the motehr ewas to child signals

aim

measure quality of attachment young chiildren had with main attachment figure

participants

100 one year old children and mothers

materials

chair and toys for children to play with

design

IV = mother and strangere leaving and entering the room

DV = observed behaviour of children

procedure

controlled by observational research

one year old chilldren exposed to seven episodes, same order, 3 minutes

researchers i nadjoining room observed child through one way mirror/cameras

recorded type and intensitiy of behaviour displayed in fifteen second intervals

tests

proximity seeking

exploration and secure base behaviour

stranger anxiety

seperation anxiety

response to reunion

proximity

whether infant stays in close proximity to mother

exploration + secure base behaviour

confidence to explore environment while using mother as secure base to return to

stranger anxiety

how anxious they were around stranger

seperation anxiety

anxious when seperated from mother

response to reunion

behaviour shown when baby reunited with mother

wwhat did the mother do

1) encouraged exploration

2) unfamiliar adult entered room, spoke to mother and approached

3) mother left room and baby was with stranger

4) mother returned, stranger left

5) mother left, baby is alone

6) stranger returned to room

7) mother returned to room

type A typical behaviour (insecure avoidant)

proximity seeking

• does not seek it

exploration and secure base behaviour

• happy to explore but doesnt return to mother

stranger anxiety

• shows very little anxiety

seperation anxiety

• no sign of distress when left alone by mother

response to reunion

• no interest in mother

• may avoid contact

type a mothers behaviour

mother ignores infant,

infant believes that communication of needs has no influence on mother

type B (secure attachment)

proximity seeking

• happy to seek proximity

exploration and secure base behaviour

• happy to expolore, uses mother as base

stranger anxiety

• moderate

seperation anxiety

• moderate

response to reunion

• happy, seeks comfort

type B behaviours

mother is sensitive to baby needs (responds to moods and feeling of infant correctyl)

type C (insecure resistant)

proximity seeking

• seeks great proximity

exploration and secure base behaviour

• very little

• does not sue mother as secure base

stranger anxiety

• high

seperation anxiety

• high

response to reunion

• approach mother, resists comfort

type c behaviours

mother is inconsistent with primary care,

sometimes ignores, sometimes meets needs