paper 3 Credibility and Validity question

Demand Characteristics

If participants guess the purpose of the experiment or the expected behaviour, they may alter their responses to fit those expectations, which can threaten internal validity by introducing confounding variables.

Acquiescence bias

Tendency of respondents to agree with statements can lead to inaccurate data, affecting the construct validity of questionnaire.

Lack of disclosure

Participants may withhold information or not fully disclose their thoughts during interviews, impacting credibility of qualitative data.

Social desirability

Participants may answer questions in a manner they deem more socially acceptable rather than truthfully, affecting the credibility of their responses.

Conformity bias

Group settings can lead to participants conforming to the dominant viewpoint expressed, which may not accurately represent their individual perspectives, thus compromising the credibility of the data collected.

Audience effect

Presence of observers can alter participants' behaviour, which can threaten the ecological validity and thus credibility of results.

Convenience sampling

Selecting participants who are readily available to the researcher. This may result in a sample that is not representative of the wider population, limiting the study's external validity and generalizability of the findings.

Snowball sampling

Involves current participants recruiting future subjects among their acquaintances. Useful for reaching specific populations, can introduce bias as the sample may be homogenous and not reflect the diversity of the wider population.

Volunteer sampling

Participants who opt to join a study may differ in significant ways to those who don't such as having more time or a particular interest in study topic. Self-selection bias can threaten both internal and external validity.

Purposive sampling

A non-random technique where participants are chosen because they possess particular characteristics. It risks creating a biased sample that does not accurately represent the population and can impact the credibility and validity of the results.

Androcentric sample

Sample biased towards one gender, results may not apply equally across gender thus impacting external validity.

Gynocentric sample

Sample biased towards one gender, results may not apply equally across gender thus impacting external validity.

Single blind

A method where the participants don't know the condition they're in to reduce demand characteristics.

Covert observations

A method to reduce the impact of audience effect and demand characteristics by not letting participants know they are being observed.

Internal validity

The extent to which a study accurately establishes a causal relationship between variables.

External validity

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to, or have relevance for settings, people, times, and measures other than the one used in the study.

Construct validity

The degree to which a test measures what it claims to be measuring.

Self-selection bias

A bias that occurs when individuals select themselves into a group, potentially leading to a sample that is not representative.

Homogenous sample

A sample that is composed of similar individuals, which may not reflect the diversity of the wider population.

Ecological validity

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to real-life settings.

Qualitative data

Data that is descriptive and conceptual, often collected through interviews and observations.

Quantitative data

Data that can be quantified and is often collected through surveys and experiments.

Alpha bias

Differences between genders are exaggerated.

Beta bias

Similarities are overemphasized, potentially impacting construct validity.

Cultural bias

Ethnocentric bias that reflects only one cultural perspective, limiting external validity.

Etic Procedures

Approach cultural phenomena from an outsider's perspective, seeking universal truths across cultures.

Methodological bias

Limited construction validity when methodology does not accurately capture the concept being studied.

Random allocation not used

Without random allocation, samples may be subject to selection bias, threatening internal validity.

Order effects

The sequence of treatments can affect responses, introducing systematic error and limiting internal validity.

Individual participant differences

Variability among participants can affect results, reducing both internal and external validity.

Interpretation bias

Experimenters' personal beliefs can influence data analysis, compromising construct validity.

Confirmation bias

Experimenters favor information that confirms their preconceptions, threatening internal and external validity.

Theoretical framework bias

Adherence to a specific theoretical framework can lead to selective use of data to support that theory.

Construct Validity

Limits the study's construct validity by ignoring data or alternative theories that may offer a more accurate or comprehensive understanding of the phenomena being studied.

Leading Questions

When experimenters ask questions that suggest a particular answer, it can influence participants to respond in a way that aligns with the experimenter's expectations, which can lead to biased data and threaten the internal validity of the findings.

Data Triangulation

Using different data sources within the same method.

Method Triangulation

Using different data collection methods with the sample.

Researcher Triangulation

Using other researchers to help carry out the research and review the data, ensures the findings are not due to one researcher's interpretations.

Member Checking

Data interpretations and conclusions are shared with participants so they can clarify what their intentions were, correct answers, and provide additional information if necessary.

Epistemological Reflexivity

Involves thinking about the ways in which knowledge has been generated in the study.

Personal Reflexivity

Thinking on ways in which the researchers' own beliefs and opinions influence the researcher and about how the research has affected the researcher personally and professionally.

Single Blind Study

Participants are unaware of certain aspects of the study.

Double Blind Study

Both participants and researchers are unaware of certain aspects of the study.

Deception (within ethical guidelines)

Deliberately withholding information about the true nature of a study from participants, or intentionally misleading them about some aspect of the research.

Sampling Method

Process by which participants are selected for the study.

Emic Procedures

Studying behaviours from within the culture, using concepts and categories that are meaningful and culturally relevant to the subject of the study.

Cross Cultural Research

Compares psychological phenomena across different cultures to understand if behaviours, processes, and phenomena are universal.

Pilot Study

A preliminary study conducted to test the feasibility, time, cost, and adverse events involved in a research project.

Confounding Variables

Variables that can affect the outcome of the study and lead to incorrect conclusions.

Cultural Bias

The tendency to interpret and judge phenomena based on the standards of one's own culture.

Demand Characteristics

Cues in an experiment that may inform participants of the purpose of the study and influence their behavior.

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where participants experience a perceived improvement in condition due to believing they are receiving treatment.

Acquiescence Bias

The tendency for survey respondents to agree with statements as presented, regardless of their actual opinion.

Theoretical Framework Bias

Bias that occurs when the theoretical framework influences the interpretation of data.

Social Desirability

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Independent Groups Design

A research design where different participants are used in each condition of the experiment.