BIO 1202 Test 4

Energy

Autotroph:
Photoautotroph- Light
Chemoautotroph- Inorganic Chemicals
Heterotroph:
Photoheterotroph- Light
Chemoheterotroph- Organic Compounds

Nutrients

A substance that provides nourishment essential for growth and the maintenance of life.

Macronutrient

An essential element that an organism must obtain in relatively large amounts.

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Potassium, Calcium, and Magnesium.

Micronutrient

An essential element that an organism must obtain in very small amounts.

Chlorine, Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc, Copper, Nickle, Molybdenum

If C and O make up 90% of the dry tissue mass, from what source do plants get most of their (dry tissue) mass?

Air

If C and O make up 90% of the dry tissue mass, what plant organ collects the materials to make most of their (dry tissue) mass?

leaves

What is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere?

Nitrogen N2

How do plants take up nitrogen? What Organ is used?

Roots

N2-> nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil -> ammonia -> nitrite -> nitrate -> plant roots

Where do plants get nitrogen from?

Soil

N2-> nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil -> ammonia -> nitrite -> nitrate -> plant roots

Based on the figure, what nutrient is limiting growth?

Phosphorous P

How do plants grow in environments with low soil nutrients (N).

Relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria and mycorrhizae that create and the nutrients need to survive (N).

There are also carnivores plants that get there nutrients from insects.
-Venus Flytrap, Sundew, Pitcher Plants

Ectomycorrhiza

Mycorrhizae fungus that lives on outside of root.

Endomycorrhiza

Mycorrhizae fungus that penetrated into the root.

Epiphytes

Plants that grown on other plants.

-Mistletoe (Photosynthetic parasite), Dodder (Nonphotosynthetic parasite), Indian Pipe (Nonphotosynthetic parasite of mycorrhizae)

Mutualism

Both organism that are involved benefit.

Animal - Fungus
Animal - Bacterium
Plant - Fungus
Fungus - Bacterium
Plant - Bacterium
Plant - Animal

Members of Kingdom Animalia are

using ingestive digestion

Animals are

chemoheterotrophs

Herbivores

Eats plant and algae

Carnivors

Eat other animals

Omnivores

Eats plants and animals

Proton Leak

Sa otters have a bad metabolism that leaks protons that actually warms them but they didn't get near as much energy out of there calorie intake causing them to eat more.

Essential Amino Acids

histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine
From meat, eggs and cheese.

Essentail Fatty Acids

Must be obtained from diet and unsaturated fatty acids (fatty acids with one or more double bonds)

Vitamin requirements of Humans

Vitamin C, D, and Folic Acid

Minerals

Simple inorganic nutrients that are usually required in small amounts.

Calcium, Phosphorus and Iron

Which of the following has a complete digestive system?

Mollusks

The complete digestive system allowed what to happen?

More specialized absorption abilities

Mechanical Digestion

Chewing or grinding increases the surface area of food.

Chemical Digestion

Stomach splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes and used to build larger molecules.

Absorbtion

The uptake of small molecules by body cells in the small intestine.

Uses thin membranes with a large surface areas for maximum absorption in to the circulatory system.

Cells take up small molecules

Elimination

The passage of undigested material out of the digestive system.

passing of undigested material

Digestion

The process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb.

Incomplete digestion

When there is one opening.

Complete digestion

When there is a mouth and anus.

Enzymes

Breaks down food into particles

Mixing

When food particles are mixed with enzymes and other fluids in the stomach.

Intracellular digestion

When food is directly taken into the cell such as sponges.

Extracellular Digestion

When food is broken down into small pieces outside the cell.

Human Digestion in Mouth

Uses mechanical digestion by chewing and chemical digestion by amylases to break down food.

Human Digestion Stomach

Uses chemical digestion with enzymes that are proteins that are secreted as pepsinogen.

Human Digestion Small Intestine

Chemical Digestion with Enzymes from secreted from the Pancreas and intestinal epithelium and other secretions are also used such as gallbladder, bile and emulsifier.

Absorption happens through the villi and microvilli through capillaries and Lacteals.

Human Digestion Fat Absorption

Fats enter the intestinal cells but leave via exocytosis and are picked up by the lymphatic system.

Human Digestion Large Intestine

Re absorption of water and vitamin and fermentation by bacteria.

Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acid, and fat.

A lipase would be an enzyme that breaks down?

lipids

Which of the following is not digested in the stomach?

nucleic acids

Which of the following undergoes chemical digestion in the oral cavity?

carbohydrates

What dose pepsin do?

Creates smaller polypeptides

Regulation of blood glucose levels to prevent hyperglycemia. Pt.1

Insulin hormones are released from the pancreases and binds to receptors on liver cells and takes on more glucose which is then converted to glycogen to take out excess glucose and less insulin is released.
(Type 1 diabetes dose not make insulin)

Alpha cells release glucagon from the pancreases and bind to receptors on liver cells signaling to break glycogen down to glucose to increase blood glucose levels.
(Type 2 diabetes is when the alpha cells don't respond to insulin)

The release of __________ increases blood glucose concentrations.

Glucagon

Regulation of blood glucose levels to prevent hyperglycemia. Pt.2

Portal System
Blood is taken from the small intestine to the liver to be treated by adding more or less glucose before it is sent to the rest of the body.

Herbivore digestion

Herbivores have a much larger cecum because plants are a lot harder to break down.

Ingestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and elimination occurring in different parts of the digestive system could only happen in which of the following animals?

fish

Ingestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and elimination occurring in different parts of the digestive system. Which of the following statements about the alimentary canal is TRUE?

-Mutations that created changes in the digestive system occur at random.

An adaptive immune system appears to be unique to vertebrates. This would include?

-mammals
-fish
-amphibians

Innate Immunity

All animal have this immunity to a very broad spectrum of pathogens.

Barriers defense Innate Immunity

-Keeps germs from getting inside (skin)
-Mucous Membranes

Internal defenses Innate Immunity

-Phagocytic cells, Antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response (fights pathogens from inside)
-binds to dsRNA (Viruses), lipopolysaccharides (bacteria), flagellin (Bacteria flagella)
-Toll-loke Receptors (TLRs) recognize groups of pathogens
-Pseudopodia surrounds pathogens which are engulfed by endocytosis creating a vacuole which fuse to lysosome and pathogens are destroyed and debris is released.

Neutrophils (Phagocytic Cell)

Phagocytic cells that circulate in the blood to engulf and destroy pathogen.

Macrophages (Phagocytic Cell)

Phagocytic cells that migrate through the body or reside permanently in organs and tissues

Dendritic (Phagocytic Cell)

Phagocytic cells that simulate development of adaptive immunity

Eosinophils (Phagocytic Cell)

Phagocytic cells discharge destructive enzymes against parasites.

Mast Cells (innate and adaptive)

Immune cells found in connective tissue.

Histamine

A compound that causes dilation of capillaries and contraction of smooth muscle. It also causes capillaries to me more permeable.

Adaptive Immunity

Unique to vertebrates
-Can learn to fight of certain pathogens
-Immune cells selectively destroy specific invading microbe, and viruses.
-Immunological response remembers the invaders which allows for a rapid response if the invader reappears again.
-Lots of receptors to readily encounter new pathogens
-Must be tolerant of our own cells
-Activation increases specific B and T cells

Humoral response Adaptive Immunity

Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids

Cells meditated Response Adaptive Immunity

Cytotoxin cells defense against infection in body cells.

Pathogen

An organism, virus, viroid or prion that causes disease.

Antigen

Any substance that elicits a response from B or T cells. Typicly a pathogen

Epitope

An accessible region of an antigen to which an antigen or anti body binds

A virus would be best described as a

Pathogen

The spike protein on SARS-CoV-2 is an example of a

Antigen

Lymphocytes

White Blood Cells
-Activated by match between receptor and antigen (epitope)

B Cell Lymphocytes (Cell mediated Adaptive Immunity)

Arise from stem cells in the bone marrow and develop in the bone marrow.
-Make antibodies
-Has Antigen Receptors
-B effector cells make plasma cells and memory cells
-Ones with antigen receptor reproduce through mitosis which release free antibodies

T Cell Lymphocytes (Cell mediated Adaptive Immunity)

Arise from stem cells in the bone marrow and develop in the thymus gland.
-Has Antigen Receptors
-T effector cells make helper t cells and cytotoxic t cells
-Bind to pieces of antigens on the surface of MHC

Antigen Receptor

Surface proteins on B and T cells that bind antigens B cell receptors and T cell receptors.

Antibody

A protein that is produced by B cell that combines with a specific antigen and facilitates the destruction of the antigen Y shaped.
-Can bind to free floating antigens

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

Binds peptide fragments derived from pathogens and display them on the cell surface for recognition by the appropriate T cells.

Effector cells

Short lived and deal with antigen

Clonal Selection

The antigen ends up selecting which lymphocytes will make clones and they have to be activated.

Primary Immune Response

Response following initial infection

Secondary Immune Response

If infected a second time

Sometimes after a vaccine you feel pretty bad (tired, sore, etc.). The cause of these symptoms is

Your bodies primary immune response

Antibodies

-Neutralize virus
-Antibodies bind to antiFgens on pathogen and clumps them up and makes it easier for macrophages to eat it. (opsonization)
-Activates Compliment system- proteins and antibodies trigger a membrane attack complex and pathogens lyses.

Helper T cells (T Cell)

Sends out cytokines after they have encountered MHC molecules on a antigen.

Cytotoxic T Cells (T Cell)

Binds to MHC and begins to punch hole in the membranes of specific pathogens using the protein perforin.

Osmosis is the movement of water from high concentration to low concentration through a semipermeable membrane. Concentration of what?

Water

Think about this definition from the perspective of the solute, then. Water moves from

low to high of solute

The osmolarity of a cell is 9 mOsmol/L and the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid is 20 mOsmol/L. Cell membranes are permeable to water. Will the net movement of water be

out of cell

Continuing with the perspective of the solute, water moves from a (more/less) dilute solution to a (more/less) concentrated solution. This is the more common way that we describe solutions. More concentrated means more solute. More dilute means less solute. You might find it helpful to phrase osmosis in this way.

more, more

A cell with an osmolarity of 275 mOsmol/L is in plasma with an osmolarity of 300 mOsmol/L. Water will move_________ the cell osmotically.

out of

A cell is placed in a solution and shrivels up. The cell was placed in a __________solution.

hypertonic

Do freshwater fish need to drink water? Yes or no. Why or why not?

No, because their body is always taking on water because there body has more solute concentration that the outside water. (They are always excreting water)

Marine Fish

Drinks and loses water because solute concentrations are higher outside of their body and through active transport excrete salt ions through gills.

Seawater has an osmolarity of 1000 mOsmol/L and human blood plasma has an osmalarity of 280 mOsmol/L. If stranded on a life raft in the ocean, drinking seawater

Make you more dehydrated

Osmoregulatory

maintain a constant internal environment for water or ions

Hyperosmoregulators

Maintains higher osmolality than surrounding seawater.
(freshwater fish)

Hypoosmoregulators

Maintains lower osmolality than surrounding seawater.
(marine fish)

A cell with an osmolarity of 200 mOsmol/L is in plasma with an osmolarity of 100 mOsmol/L. Water will move_________ the cell osmotically.

into

Osmoconformers

Vary as the external conditions vary.