Bio 101 Final Exam

Cumulative

Chemistry

the study of the interaction between molecules and atoms

Matter

anything that occupies space and possesses mass

Protons

positively charged particles located within nucleus

Electrons

negatively charged particles that orbit nucleus

• properties: no definitive size or shape, carry energy

Neutrons

neutral particles located within nucleus

Atomic number

number of protons in an atom, determines atomic properties

Atomic mass

number of protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus

Elements

lots of one molecule or types of molecules, two or more types of atoms

Compounds

two or more types of molecules/elements bonded together

Isotopes

slightly different than an element, similar properties

Radioisotope

unstable atom that breaks up spontaneously

Radioactive decay

degradation of atomic nucleus

• predictable consistent process

• some isotopes break down more consistently, used to measure concentration and ratio to predict age (half life)

Electron orbitals

• contain two electrons max.

• multiple orbitals per energy level or shelf

• electrons gain energy by filling orbitals

• pattern: 2(n²)

Shell Model

first shell has one orbital, every other holds four

Valence shell

last shell, determines how element interacts with other elements based on electron number/reactivity

Energy levels/shells

determine reactive potential

Reactive elements

have a greater chance to move to the next energy level

• desire stability, filling valence shell

Chemically inert

no desire to fill shell, all filled

• all noble gasses

Chemical bonds

the way two atoms interact and electron vacancies are filled

Polarity

separation of charges

Electronegativity

ability/desire to pull electrons from other atoms

• dependent on size, vacancies, and reactivity

Ionic bonds

held together by opposite charges

• each substance retains charge

• polar

• donating/stealing electron

Covalent bonds

sharing of electrons to fill an orbital

• very strong

• increase in bonds equals increase in bond strength

  • multiple covalent bonds

• polar and nonpolar

Hydrogen bonds

attraction between hydrogen atoms and other covalently bonded atoms

• not ‘true’ chemical bonds

• water caries a neutral charge

• polar covalent bond

• able to covalently bond with many molecules

• very weak but numerous bond

• other atom exerts more pull on the shared electron than hydrogen

Polar molecule

attracts water and molecules around it

Chemistry of water

• universal solvent

  • polarity

• covalent bond

• displays cohesion and adhesion

• large heat capacity

• high heat of evaporation

• density

Density

uniquely less dense when cold and solid

pH

amount of hydrogen ions floating in solution

• acidic: 0-6

• neutral: 7

• alkaline: 8-14

Acid

hydrogen ion surplus in a solution

• strong vs weak acids

• pH < 7

Base

lack of hydrogen in a solution

• pH>7

• OH

Buffer

stabilizes pH of a solution by accepting or donating hydrogen ions (H^+)

Acids and bases

• biological properties function within pH range

• influx of acids or vases

  • damage and environmental effects

Organic compounds

composed of primarily carbon and hydrogen atoms

• on Earth prior to life

Carbon characteristics

• versatile bonding: can form four covalent bonds, four vacancies

• can form shapes with bonds: chain/ring

• form a wide variety of compounds

Hydrocarbons

organic molecule composed of only carbon and hydrogen

Functional group

atom or molecular group covalently bonded to a carbon atom of an organic compound

• determines characteristics of compound

  • pH and polarity

• determines chemical behavior

Isomer

molecules with same formula but different structures

Reaction

process that results in a molecular change

Hydrolysis

requires water

Condensation

forms water

• metabolic water

• dehydration

organic macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acid, and proteins

monomer

subunit of a larger molecule

polymer

composed of multiple monomers

Carbohydrates

organic compounds that consist of CHO

• fuel source and energy storage

  • carbon/hydrogen bonds

• structural components

• sugars and carbs

• 1:2:1

monosaccharides

simple sugar, carbohydrates when broken down yields non-carbohydrate molecules

• monomer/subunit

• solubility enables them to move in biological systems easily

  • polarity

• energy source

• structural sugar

• glucose

  • C6 H12 O6

Disaccharide

complex carb composed of two monosaccharides: lactose and sucrose

Polysaccharide

complex carb composed of many monosaccharides forming a complex structure

• hundreds of thousands of simple sugars

• difficult to break down or delayed energy release

• cellulose

• chitin

Cellulose

structural component of plants

• indigestible

• very ridged structure

  • insoluble fiber

• herbivorous animals

Chitin

structural component of arthropods

• indigestible

• exoskeleton

Lipids

a macromolecule composed of CHO

• more carbon and hydrogen bonds than carbs

• nonpolar molecules

  • insoluble

• energy storage

• fatty acids and glycerol monomers

Fat

fatty acid bonded to glycerol

• triglyceride

Triglyceride

fats with three fatty acid tails

Fat vs. Oil

Fat is solid at room temperature, oil is liquid

Glycerol

head of triglyceride molecule

• first monomer of fats/lipids

Fatty acid

long chains of hydrocarbons that form the tail on triglycerides

• second monomer

Saturated fat

all carbons are bonded to two hydrogen atoms

• no double bonds

• can pack tightly

unsaturated fat

at least one carbon is bonded to a single atom

• at least one double bond

• cant be packed tightly

phospholipids

phosphate head with two hydrocarbon tails

• polar and nonpolar sections

• cell membranes

  • phospholipids bilayer

Wax

lipids with usually one long fatty acid tail connected to alcohol

• packed very tightly

• water/air resistance

  • plants (leaves) and animals like birds

Steroids/sterols

lipids without fatty acid tails

• formed into rings

• physiological functions

• cholesterol and hormones

Cholesterol

reinforces cell membranes, in between

• formed from saturated fats

• cholesterol build-up: too ridged prevents proper function

Hormone

regulates growth and development

• testosterone and estrogen

Proteins

organic molecule with a very wide variety of functions because of the wide variety in structure

• composed if CHON

• diet

Amino acids

monomer of proteins

• composed of carboxyl group, amino acid group, and “side chain”

  • type of side chain determines type of amino acid

  • determines properties

• 20 different types naturally occurring

  • different combinations form different proteins

Protein structure

• primary

• secondary

• tertiary

• quaternary

• importance: confers/determines function

peptide (covalent) bond

chemical bond that connects amino acids

• forms chains of peptides

• polypeptide chains join to other chains forming proteins

polypeptide

multiple amino acids bonded together

Nucleic acids

preform cellular information delivery and storage

Nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids

• composed of pentose sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

DNA

nucleic acid with deoxyribose sugar

• storage of genetic material

• double helix

• thymine base

RNA

nucleic acid with a ribose sugar

• protein synthesis

• single stranded, linear

• uracil base

Cell theory

every living organism is made of cells

• smallest unit of life

• arise from preexisting cells

• discovered by Antoni Leeuwenhoek

  • animalcules

• Robert Hook

• Cells carry out metabolism and homeostasis

• cellular metabolism dependent upon surface area

  • cellular function

  • SA to volume ratio

  • cell membranes

Plasma membrane

layer that regulates what enters and exits cell

• not always outermost layer

Cytoplasm

intracellular fluid composed primarily of water, sugar, and ions

• cytosol

• suspends materials

Ribosome

synthesizes proteins

Eukaryotes

• possess nucleus

• very large cells

• contain membrane-bound organelles

• animals, plants, fungi, protists

Prokaryotes

• lack of nucleus

• very small cells

• simple structures/organelles

• bacteria and archaea

Prokaryotic organism cellular components

• ribosomes: polypeptide assemblage

• plasmids: circles of DNA

  • small amount of genes

• nucleotide: region containing majority of DNA

• cell wall: protection, structure, support

  • on top of plasma membrane

  • different components in archaea and bacteria

• Superficial elements:

  • capsule: adhesive outer surface

  • fimbriae: aids in adhesion

  • flagellum/flagella: mobility

• biofilm: commercial microorganisms

  • living in close proximity

  • “slimy” appearance

  • colonization of hostile environments

Endosymbiont theory

many eukaryotic organelles were once prokaryotic organisms absorbed or ingested

Plant cells

• cell wall

• central vacuole

• chloroplasts

Animal cells

• lack cell wall and central vacuole

• have a centriole

Eukaryotic organelles and structures

• Nucleus: stores cell’s genetic material

  • regulates cellular function

  • double membrane bound organelle

• Nuclear membrane: membrane surrounding nucleus

  • connected to rough endoplasmic reticulum

  • nuclear pores

• Nucleolus: produces ribosomes

  • center of nucleus

  • ribosomes and nuclear pores

• Endomembrane system: series of organelles that utilize vesicles to preform a variety of functions

• vesicle: membrane enclosed sac with a specific function

  • formed from the budding of organelles

  • material transportation

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

synthesizes and distributes proteins for extracellular use

• attached to nuclear membrane

• covered in ribosomes

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

synthesizes and distributes lipids and carbohydrates

• detoxification

• intra and extracellular use

Golgi apparatus/body

modifies the vesicle and its contents then distributes them into or out of cell

• receives vesicles from plasma membrane or RER/SER

Lysome

break down cellular waste and debris

• formed from Golgi

• digestive enzymes

Peroxisome

membrane enclosed sac that breaks down fatty acids

• hydrogen peroxide and catalase

• formed by ribosomes

Vacuoles

membrane-bound sac that stores nutrients

• animals have a lot

Central vacuoles

large vacuoles that are primarily composed of water

• hydrostatic/turgor pressure

  • helps maintain shape by pushing out from inside

• plant cells

• maintain plant shape

Chloroplast

organelle specializing in photosynthesis

• contain their own DNA, ribosomes, metabolic processes

  • endosymbionnt theory: certain organelles are the decedents of ancient bacteria

  • chlorophyl

  • double membrane bound

  • plant cells

  • structure:

    • stroma

    • thykaloids

    • granum

Stroma

fluid within chloroplast

thykaloids

membranes on which photosynthesis occurs

• contain photosystems and pigments

• phospholipid bilayer

granum

stacks of thykaloids

mitochondrion

organelle responsible for cellular respiration in eukaryotes

• produces ATP

• own DNA and ribosomes

• double membrane bound

• Nucleic acid

matrix

mitochondrial internal fluid

• citric acid cycle

cristae

fingerlike projections within mitochondria

• ETP/ETC

• H+ gradient

cytoskeleton

system of structures that reinforce the cell, organizes components, and move structures

• composed of protein fibers

• cellular locomotion

• forms weblike structure in cell

cytoskeleton intermediate filament

reinforces cellular shape and structure

• strengthens cell

• 8-11nm diameter

cytoskeleton actin filament

reinforces cellular shape and structure and mobility

• uses and motor protein myosin

• 7nm diameter