Hist 2111: Pre-Columbian America to Jacksonian Democracy

What were the main cultural, economic, and political differences between Native Americans and Europeans before contact?

Native American societies were often communal and matrilineal, while European societies were hierarchical and patriarchal.

How did Native Americans and Europeans define 'freedom' before contact?

Definitions of freedom varied, with Native Americans often viewing it in communal terms, while Europeans had a more individualistic perspective.

What factors compelled Europeans to look westward in the 15th century?

Economic opportunities, the search for new trade routes, and competition with other European powers motivated westward exploration.

What is Beringia, and when did the first humans cross it?

Beringia is a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska, crossed by the first humans around 15,000 BCE.

Who were the first travelers across Beringia?

Small bands of hunter-gatherers, typically consisting of up to 25 people.

What significant event occurred around 11,000 BCE regarding megafauna?

Mammoths became extinct, impacting the resources available to early humans.

What characterized the Archaic Native American period?

Archaic Native Americans hunted smaller animals, spread across the U.S., and formed tribes of 25-100 people.

What agricultural developments occurred in what is now Mexico around 4000 BCE?

Agriculture began to predominate over hunter-gathering, with maize, squash, and beans as main crops.

What was the role of women in Native American agriculture compared to European culture?

In Native American societies, women did the farming, contrasting with European norms where men typically farmed.

What cultural developments arose from the establishment of agriculture among Native Americans?

Settling cultures emerged, leading to longer lifespans, the rise of religion, politics, and hobbies.

What was the Anasazi culture known for around 1000 CE?

The Anasazi perfected irrigation systems, built aligned structures with solstices, and had elaborate political structures.

What was Cahokia, and what characterized its culture?

Cahokia was a significant woodland culture with burial mounds, a population of 10-30,000, and a centralized power structure.

What was the structure of the Mexica Empire?

The Mexica Empire had a hierarchical society with warriors at the top, followed by priests, laborers, and slaves.

What role did human sacrifice play in Mexica culture?

Human sacrifice was believed to sustain the sun and was performed in rituals involving high temples.

What were the key aspects of indigenous religions in pre-contact America?

Indigenous religions were diverse, often animistic, and connected to nature, hunting, and farming.

How did indigenous peoples view property and land?

Land was viewed communally, with no concept of private property or wealth accumulation.

What were the gender relations like in many Native American cultures?

Many cultures were matrilineal, with women having significant roles in decision-making and farming.

What issues faced pre-Columbian America?

Endemic warfare, slavery, environmental alterations, and soil exhaustion were significant issues.

How many languages were spoken in North America before European contact?

Over 2,000 languages were spoken in North America.

What was the European perspective on exploration before the 15th century?

Prior to the 15th century, Europeans primarily looked east for exploration rather than west.

What was the significance of the agricultural revolution in Native American societies?

It allowed for permanent settlements, population growth, and the development of complex societies.

What was the average lifespan of Archaic Native Americans?

The average lifespan was around 18 years.

What were the burial mounds in Cahokia used for?

They served as burial sites for important leaders and centers for religious and political life.

What was the state of Europe in 1492?

Europe was largely a backwater outpost, not a world power, with global power residing in China and the Middle Eastern caliphates.

What were the main motivations for Spain's exploration of the New World?

Motivations included the Crusades, the fall of Constantinople, the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and the desire for wealth and religious expansion.

What role did Portugal play in the exploration of the Americas?

Portugal was at the forefront of exploration, developing techniques and technology, setting up coastal outposts for trade, and creating the caravel for long-distance travel.

What was the significance of the Reconquista for Spain?

The Reconquista was central to the formation of Spanish national culture and identity, marked by both war and religious intolerance.

How did the Black Death impact Europe in the 15th century?

The Black Death wiped out a third of Europe's population, leading to fragmentation, isolation, and a lack of authority.

What was the view of Native Americans by Europeans during the 16th century?

Europeans viewed Native Americans as 'libidinous' and used this perception to justify their conquest and horrific acts.

What was the outcome of Columbus's voyages?

Columbus's voyages brought European diseases that exterminated 1-3 million Native people, and his voyages are deemed not successful in achieving his goals.

What was the significance of the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469?

It united the two kingdoms of Spain and was a pivotal moment for Spanish exploration and national identity.

What was the impact of the Crusades on European trade?

The Crusades opened up European trade and created a demand for goods from the elites.

What was the Portuguese approach to slavery in Africa?

The Portuguese looked to Africa to enslave people for sugar extraction and labor.

What was the concept of Christian freedom in Europe?

Christian freedom was not a single idea but a collection of distinct rights and privileges, often rooted in law and hierarchical order.

How did the Ottomans view exploration of the New World?

The Ottomans did not explore the New World because they already had the goods that Europe wanted and controlled the trade routes.

What was the significance of the caravel in exploration?

The caravel was developed by the Portuguese for long-distance travel, enhancing their exploration capabilities.

What did Europeans believe about land ownership?

Land ownership was rooted in the notion of private property, where land was only owned if it was 'improved'.

What was the role of the Catholic Church in Spanish exploration?

The Catholic Church played a significant role in Spanish exploration, with the goal of converting as many people as possible to Catholicism.

What were the consequences of the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire?

The conquest led to the fall of the Incan Empire after Pizarro captured the emperor, demonstrating the effectiveness of Spanish military tactics.

What did Columbus believe about the world during his voyages?

Columbus believed the world was round and thought he could reach Asia by sailing west.

What was the impact of European diseases on Native Americans?

European diseases brought by explorers exterminated a significant portion of Native American populations.

What was the attitude towards women in European society during this period?

Men had complete coverture over women, and women had no authority or economic independence.

What was the significance of the voyages of Christopher Columbus?

Columbus's voyages marked the beginning of sustained European contact with the Americas, despite their disastrous effects on Native populations.

What was the perception of Native Americans' freedom by Europeans?

Europeans viewed the 'ultimate freedom' of Native Americans as a negative thing, contrasting it with their own hierarchical notions of freedom.

What technological advancements did Portugal contribute to exploration?

Portugal developed techniques and technology for exploration, including the caravel and the compass.

What significant process was initiated by Columbus's arrival in the New World?

The Columbian Exchange, which ended the age-old separation of the hemispheres.

What were some of the goods brought from the Old World to the New World during the Columbian Exchange?

Gunpowder, wheat, horses, and domesticated animals.

What were some of the goods brought from the New World to the Old World during the Columbian Exchange?

Chocolate, corn, and many other goods.

How did Crosby describe the Columbian Exchange?

As 'The most important historical development in the history of mankind.'

What was the impact of the Columbian Exchange on Native American populations?

It led to a catastrophic decline, with 90-95% of pre-contact Native Americans gone by 1650.

What diseases contributed to the decline of Native American populations after European contact?

Smallpox, measles, syphilis, among others.

What was the encomienda system?

A system that allowed Spanish colonists to demand labor from Native Americans, which was brutal and exploitative.

What reforms were introduced to the encomienda system in 1542?

The New Laws aimed to lighten the encomienda system and prohibited the enslavement of Native Americans.

What system replaced the encomienda system, and how did it compare?

Repartimiento, which was not much better than the encomienda system.

What economic system benefited the mother country in colonial contexts?

Mercantilism.

How was Spanish society in the Americas structured?

It was hierarchical and rigid, based on race, with a steep social ladder from peninsulares to mestizos to Natives.

What pattern did the Spanish establish for European colonization?

They opened up the Atlantic Ocean to trade and showed that the New World could enrich the Old World.

What triggered the Protestant Reformation in 1517?

A series of abuses by the Catholic Church, particularly in modern-day Germany, leading to Martin Luther's 95 Theses.

What was the 'Black Legend' in the context of Spanish colonization?

A propaganda narrative that depicted Spain as a uniquely brutal and exploitative colonizer.

What was the significance of Henry VIII in the context of the English Reformation?

He became the head of both church and state, launching the English Reformation in 1534.

What marked the beginning of English world ascendancy?

The reign of Elizabeth I from 1558 to 1603.

What were some motivations for English expansion into the New World?

Spreading faith, social crises at home, demographic nightmares, and the concept of America as a place for 'masterless men'.

What was the first English settlement in the New World and when was it established?

Jamestown, established in 1607.

What challenges did the Jamestown colony face in its early years?

Difficulties in establishing the colony, periodic conflicts with Native Americans, and a high mortality rate.

What was the economic focus of the Chesapeake region during the colonial period?

A tobacco plantation-centered economy.

How did the society in the Chesapeake region become stratified?

It developed a small elite ruling over numerous bound laborers, creating a highly unequal society.

What was the outcome of the Uprising of 1622 in Jamestown?

It culminated from periodic conflicts between Native Americans and the English settlers.

What was the demographic situation in the early Jamestown colony?

It was precariously weak, with 80% of arrivals in the first decade dying.

What was the status of tobacco before the 17th century?

Tobacco was considered a luxury, with 35 million pounds sent to Europe from the New World by 1700.

Describe the social structure in the colonies during the tobacco economy.

The society was highly stratified and unequal, with a small elite ruling over numerous bound laborers, mostly servants.

What was the head-right system?

The head-right system awarded 50 acres of land from the crown to anyone who paid for a servant to come to the New World.

What percentage of Europeans came to the colonies as indentured servants?

75% of Europeans came over as indentured servants.

Why was tobacco cultivation labor-intensive?

Tobacco cultivation was labor-intensive, necessitating a large number of servants.

How did indentured servants view their situation?

Most indentured servants saw themselves as free individuals in a temporary job that could be profitable.

When did African slavery begin to emerge in the colonies?

African slavery began to emerge in the 18th century.

What was the male-to-female ratio among the early colonists?

Men outnumbered women by a ratio of 5:1.

Why was there a delay in population growth among women in the colonies?

Women had children late because they could not marry while being indentured servants.

What was the Puritan stance on the Church of England?

Puritans were dissenters who believed that Henry VIII's reforms did not go far enough in breaking away from Catholic practices.

What was the Puritan emphasis in their religious practice?

Puritans emphasized an individual relationship with God through the Bible and prayer, and wanted church authority vested in local congregations.

What does the term 'A City upon a Hill' refer to in Puritan ideology?

It refers to John Winthrop's vision of the Massachusetts Bay Colony as a model of a true religious community for others to follow.

What was the Great Migration?

The Great Migration (1630-1640) saw 20,000 Puritans travel to New England to found the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

What was the significance of the New England covenant?

The New England covenant represented a collective interest in Godly behavior among towns and churches, emphasizing orthodoxy and unity.

What were the demographics of the New England colonies?

Puritans in New England were typically young, had even sex ratios, many families with children, and high birth rates.

How did literacy rates in New England compare to those in Chesapeake settlements?

New England was more prosperous and had higher literacy rates, which were important for interpreting God's will.

What was the role of women in Puritan society?

Women could attend church but could not be full members; their roles were rooted in male authority.

What was the purpose of Harvard's founding?

Harvard was originally founded to create more pastors.

How did Puritan politics function regarding church and state?

Puritan politics were characterized by a principle of consent, decentralized church government, and close connections between church and state.

What was the voting eligibility in Puritan society?

Voting was limited to full members of the church, referred to as 'visible saints'.

What was the significance of moral conduct in Puritan legal codes?

Puritan legal codes heavily emphasized moral conduct as a reflection of their religious beliefs.

What was the impact of early marriages on population growth in New England?

Early marriages contributed to a population boom due to higher survival rates of children and healthier environments.

What was the Puritan view on community living?

Puritans required people to live in towns, fostering a sense of spacefulness and watchfulness for one another.

What was the relationship between church and state in early New England?

Church and state were closely connected.

What was the 'Half-way covenant' established in 1662?

It allowed the children of church members to have their children baptized, amidst a decline in church membership.

Who was Roger Williams and why was he expelled from Salem?

Roger Williams was expelled in 1636 for spreading 'diverse, new, dangerous opinions' and believed in the ability to 'follow your own conscience.'

What did Anne Hutchinson believe about salvation?

She believed that individuals must follow their 'inner light' to know God's judgment, rather than relying on clergy.

What was Anne Hutchinson accused of, and what was the outcome?

She was denounced as 'antinomian' (lawless), put on trial for heresy, and ultimately banished from Massachusetts.

What does the term 'antinomianism' refer to in the context of Anne Hutchinson?

It refers to the belief that faith alone, rather than adherence to the law, is necessary for salvation.

What was the impact of dissenters in New England?

Dissenters fled persecution but later suppressed dissent in America, highlighting a tension between orthodoxy and pluralism.

What were some characteristics of New England society?

New England had a gender balance, a temperate climate, a focus on education for ministry, and was driven by religious motivations.

How did the Chesapeake region differ from New England?

Chesapeake was male-dominated, had a swampy climate, a tobacco-driven plantation economy, and was materially-driven.