PSYCHOLOGY 1/2

Investigation aim

The purpose of a study

Hypothesis

A statement predicting the probable outcomes of an investigation

IV

The variable that is being manipulated by the researcher

DV

The variable that is being measured by the researcher

Extraneous variable

A variable other than the IV that may have an unwanted effect on the DV

Controlled variable

A variable that is held constant to ensure that the only influence on the DV is the IV

Confounding variable

An unwanted variable that has affected the results of an investigation

Population

The wider group of people that a study is investigating

Sample

The smaller group of people selected from the population who will be participants in the investigation

Random sampling

Selecting participants from the population in a way that means each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate

Stratified sampling

First dividing the population into subgroups, and then randomly selecting participants from each subgroup in the proportion that they appear in the population

Random allocation

Dividing a sample into groups in a way that each participant has an equal chance of being placed into the experimental or the control group

Experimental group

The group that is exposed to the IV and receives the experimental treatment

Control group

The group that forms a baseline level to compare the experimental group with

Between subjects design

An investigation design in which participants are randomly allocated to either the control or the experimental condition

Within subjects design

An investigation design in which all participants in the sample are involved in both the experimental and control conditions

Mixed design

An investigation design that combines elements of a between subjects design and a within subjects design

Case Study

An in-depth investigation into an individual or small group of people

Fieldwork

A type of investigation that involves collecting information
through observing and interacting with a selected environment

Interviews

Structured or unstructured questions that are answered verbally by the participant.

Questionnaires

A set of structured, written, open- or close-ended questions that are answered in a set format

Focus groups

Involve a trained moderator conducting a collective interview of multiple participants

Yarning circles

Used to explore topics with Indigenous participants through reciprocal dialogue, storytelling and informal conversations to provide an insight into the Indigenous participants' thoughts and feelings about a topic.

Literature review

A type of investigation that involves collating and analysing secondary data findings and viewpoints

Secondary data

Data obtained second hand through research conducted by another person for another purpose

Primary data

Data collected through firsthand research for an intended
purpose

Ethical guidelines

Guidelines that ensure the protection and welfare of all
participants in research

Confidentiality

An ethical guideline that ensures participants remain anonymous, and their personal information is kept private, protected and secure throughout the study

Voluntary participation

An ethical guideline ensuring that each participant freely agrees to participate in a study, with no pressure or coercion

Informed consent

An ethical guideline conducted before a study begins - participants agree to participate after they have received all the details of the study, including the purpose, procedures and potential risks

Withdrawal rights

An ethical guideline that ensures the participants are free to discontinue their involvement in a study at any point during or after the conclusion of the study, without receiving any penalty

Deception

An ethical guideline involving withholding the true nature of the study from participants, when their knowledge of the true purpose may affect their behaviour

Debriefing

Conducted at the end of the study and is when participants are informed of the true aims, results and conclusions of the study

Qualitative data

Data that describes characteristics and qualities

Quantitative data

Data that includes measurable values and quantities and can be compared on a numerical scale

Mean

A statistic that is the average value of a set of data

Measure of central tendency

A category of statistics that describes the central value of a set of data

Median

The middle value in an ordered set of data

Mode

The value that occurs most frequently within a set of data

Standard deviation

A statistic that shows the spread of the data around the mean

Controlled experiment

Tests the cause-and-effect relationship between one or more independent variable(s) and a dependent variable under controlled conditions

Participant related variables

A source of bias which includes any characteristics that vary naturally between participants in a study

Situational variables

A source of bias which includes any external factor that may arise during a study

Order effects

A source of bias that affects the results due to the order in which the conditions were conducted

Repeatability

The closeness of the agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under the same conditions of measurement.

Reproducibilty

The closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under changed conditions of measurement.

Outlier

Are readings that lie a long way from other results.

Internal validity

The extent to which an investigation measures what it claims to be measuring.

External validity

The extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings.

Conclusion

A statement about the findings of a study in relation to the sample.

Abstract thinking

A way of thinking that does not rely on being able to see, experience or manipulate in order to understand something.

ADHD

A neurodevelopmental disorder that results in persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactive-impulsive behaviors that have a negative effect on development and functioning.

Animism

The belief that everything which exists has some kind of consciousness or awareness.

Attachment

The close emotional bond or relationship between an infant and the mother or primary caregiver.

Atypical behaviors

Patterns of behavior that are not expected for an individual or that deviate from the norm and can be harmful or distressing for the individual or those around them.

Autism spectrum disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the way people communicate and interact with others.

Central coherence

The ability to derive overall meaning from a mass of detail.

Classification

The ability to organize information (things or events) into categories based on common features that set them apart from other classes or groups.

Cognitive development

Changes in an individual's mental abilities.

Concrete operational stage

Children are now capable of true logical thought, limited to objects and events that are present and can be experienced.

Conservation

The idea that an object does not change its weight, mass, volume, or area when the object changes its shape or appearance.

Cultural perspectives

A criterion for determining whether a behavior is typical or atypical, by accounting for cultural norms or societal standards.

Development

The changes that occur over time.

Egocentrism

When children are unable to see things from another person's point of view.

Emotional development

Changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted, and dealt with.

Environment

All the experiences, objects, and events to which we are exposed throughout our entire lifetime.

Executive function

A cognitive process that helps us to set goals, organize and plan, focus our attention, and ultimately get things done - involves complex cognitive processes such as working memory and problem solving.

Formal operational stage

More complex thought processes are evident and thinking becomes increasingly sophisticated through brain maturation and life experience.

Goal-directed behavior

Ability to perform a series of actions for a specific purpose.

Heredity

The transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring via genes at the time of conception.

Logical thinking

Ability to solve problems and identify a range of possible solutions.

Maladaptive behavior

Behavior that is unhelpful, dysfunctional, and non-productive, interfering with a person's ability to adjust to their environment.

Neurodiverse

Refers to individuals who have atypical neurological development and cognitive functioning.

Neurodiversity

Refers to the idea that everyone has a unique nervous system with its own combination of abilities and needs.

Neurotypical

Individuals who have standard neurological development and cognitive functioning.

Object permanence

Understanding that objects exist, even when they can't be seen.

Personal distress

A state in which a person experiences unpleasant or upsetting emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, or feeling overwhelmed.

Physical development

Changes in the body and its various systems.

Pre-operational stage

Children can mentally represent objects and experiences and can also communicate more effectively.

Psychological development

The changes in an individual's social, emotional, and cognitive abilities, from infancy through to old age.

Sensorimotor stage

Infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor abilities.

Social development

Changes in an individual's relationships and skills in interacting with others.

Social learning theory

Involves actively watching a model's behavior and the consequences of their behavior to guide the learner's future actions.

Social norms

Shared standards or social beliefs about what is normal, acceptable, or typical.

Statistical rarity

A criterion that views atypical behaviors as deviating significantly from the statistical average or mean.

Symbolic thinking

The ability to use symbols such as words and pictures to represent objects, places, or events.

Theory of mind

Cognitive ability that allows us to view things from someone else's point of view and predict people's behaviors.

Typical behaviors

Patterns of behavior that are expected of an individual or that conform to standards of what is acceptable for a given situation.

Association Area

Surround sensory and motor areas in the brain's cerebral cortex and deal with more complex functions that require integration of inputs of information from different areas.

Acquired brain injury

Any type of brain damage or injury that occurs after birth.

Autonomic Nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body's internal organs and glands, providing feedback to the brain about their activities.

Axon

A single, tubelike extension.

Axon Terminal

Each axon terminal has a small knob-like swelling at its tip called a terminal button.

Brain trauma

Any brain damage or disorder that impairs normal functioning of the brain, either temporarily or permanently.

Broca's Area

Area in the brain's left frontal lobe with a crucial role in clear and fluent speech production.

Central Nervous System

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain involved in complex mental abilities, sensory processing, and voluntary movements.

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain with the cerebral cortex as its outer layer.

Concussion

A type of traumatic brain injury caused by a blow to the head or by a hit to the body that causes the head and brain to move rapidly back and forth.

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)

A progressive brain degeneration and fatal condition thought to be caused by repeated blows to the head and repeated episodes of concussion.