psychology exam

development

The pattern of continuity and change in

human capabilities that occur

throughout life, involving both growth

and decline.

physical development

infants are remarkably helpless

when they are born, relative to many

species.

reflexes

involuntary

responses that are simple and do not

require conscious thought

rooting reflex

Reflex involves an infant’s response

to having their cheek stroked.

palmar grasp reflex (gripping)

Place something in an infant’s hand, and

they will tend to grasp it. (Often surprisingly strong.)

plantar reflex (toe curling)

If you rub the sole of an infant’s foot, you’ll get

a response.

inner sole

toes curl down

outer side

toes curl up

preferential looking

infants show a clear

preference for looking at human faces

over any other stimulus.

infancy

the neurons of the brain are

relatively less connected.

early childhood (up to 5 years)

the number of connections expands

tremendously.

adolescence

the number of these connections

decrease with greater learning and

experience.

pruning

connections to the strong

ones are strengthened, but the weak

connections die out.

puberty

a period of rapid skeletal and

sexual maturation that occurs mainly in

early adolescence.

girls (puberty)

average of 9 to 10 years

boys (puberty)

average of 11 to 12 years

girls (mature)

are likely to be at higher risk

for depression & eating disorders.

boys (mature)

not so much for them, and “early maturers” likely seem to do

even better.

limbic system

associated with emotions and memory.

PFC

has a strong role and is in higher-level of

thinking, self-control, planning, etc.

hormones

responsible for the mood changes that

is seen in adolescence.

brain development

doesn’t complete its full

“adult” development until mid to

late 20’s

schema

involve concepts, but are larger

cognitive organizations that relate one concept

to many other concepts.

jean Piaget

Studied how children learn and make sense of

their world

assimilation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing

schema, without the need to revise the schema

accommodation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing

schema that requires revision of the schema

Sensorimotor

Birth to 2 years

Preoperational

2-6 years

Operational

6-12 years

Formal Operational

12 years and up

Sensorimotor

(Birth – 2 years)

the child is still exploring, sleeping,

exploring etc.

object permanence

the ability to form mental representations of

objects that are no longer visible

Preoperational

(2-6 years)

Characterized by the use of symbols,

egocentrism, and limits on the ability to

think logically

Egocentrism

Limitations on the ability to

understand the point of view of others

Conservation

The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity.

Concrete Operational

(6-12 years)

Egocentrism drops off; intuition is less relied

on, and logical reasoning begins. A child can think logically about more concrete

things and can perform basic operations. (struggles: abstract concepts and hypothetical reasoning)

Formal Operations

(12+ years)

Mature cognitive capacities have been

reached, not peak intelligence, but there are no longer cognitive capacities that are different

from adults (hypothetical reasoning is now possible, and they can think critically)

temperament

Aspects of an individuals’ personality that are

innate and observable early in life

infant attachment

the close emotional

bond between an infant and caregiver (Attachment needs to be fostered

through parenting; attachment is not

innate)

Secure attachment

a pattern of infant-

caregiver bonding in which children explore

confidently and return to the parent or

caregiver for reassurance

insecure attachment

a pattern of bonding

that is generally less desirable.

the marshmallow test (Walter Mischel)

Walter Mischel gave

children a marshmallow. If they didn’t get it

for 15 minutes, the child would get a second

marshmallow.

delayed gratification

the ability to resist

temptation for a small immediate reward in order

to get a better longer-term reward.

behavior regulation

the parent’s

attempts to regulate the child through

discipline, clear expectations, parental

monitoring, and rules

parental support

parent’s provision of

emotional comfort, empathy, and caring

about the child’s perspective

Neglectful: low regulation; low

support

Characterized by a lack of parental

Involvement and children tend to struggle socially and

struggle with independence.

Permissive: low regulation; high

support.

Characterized by the placement of a few

limits on the child’s behavior, and the child likes it; however, it’s predictive of bad

outcomes (higher delinquency and

addiction)

Authoritarian: high regulation; low

support

Restrictive, punitive parenting style that

Emphasis on hard work & effort also Predictive of more difficulties with social

skills and emotion

Authoritative: high regulation; high

support

Encourages the child to be independent

but still places limits on behavior mostly resulting in the best outcomes

Corporal punishment

Punishment meant to cause physical pain (AKA Spanking)

Preconventional

moral choices are made

according to expectations of reward and

punishment

Conventional

moral choices are made

according to law or public opinion

Postconventional

moral choices

are made according to

personal standards and

reason

terror management theory

concerns how we react to

knowledge of our own mortality basically to experience terror of our own

eventual deaths.

Kubler ross stage

based on people facing their own

death and not based on people coping

with the death of loved ones.

Resilience

Initial grief is experienced, but they return to their

The previous level of functioning quickly

Recovery (most common)

These people experience grief, but longer than the

resilient people. They do return to previous levels of

functioning

Chronic dysfunction

Grief continues chronically; high risk for depression

and other problems

Delayed grief or trauma

No initial (or very little) immediate reaction, but grief

is delayed and experienced later

motivation

is the force that moved people to behave, think, and feel the way that they do. (your

desire to eat, drink, have sex, socialize, to seek education, a job, etc.)

drive reduction theory

involves viewing

motivation as a function of need and drive.

need

a deprivation that energizes the drive to

eliminate or reduce the deprivation

drive

an aroused state that occurs because of

a physiological need

homeostasis

the body’s tendency to

maintain an equilibrium, or steady state.

sex

is most frequent in new relationships but then

stabilizes at lower levels later.

optimum arousal theory

A problem with drive reduction theory is that it

assumes that what we do is a function of how

much our drive needs to be addressed.

Yerkes Dodson law

The psychological principle stating that

performance is best under conditions of

moderate arousal rather than either low or

high arousal.

incentive theories

downplay the importance

of an internal state of tension.

intrinsic motivation

reward from within

extrinsic motivation

reward from an outside

source

glucose

body has multiple sensors for the levels of

blood sugar.

leptin

is a hormone released by fat cells in

the body, which decreases hunger (and

increases metabolism).

ghrelin

works in opposition, and increases hunger

ventromedial hypothalamus

signals satiety

lateral hypothalamus

signals hunger

Physical

“horny”, pleasure, fun, exploration, tension

reduction

Goal attainment

reproduction, money/drugs, jealousy,

reputation, revenge

Emotional

in love, feel connected, romance

Insecurity

felt insecure, obligation, loneliness, desiring

attraction

androgens

Predominates in males (produced in adrenal

glands and in testes)

Estrogens

Predominates in females (produced in the ovaries;

converted from testosterone in males)

excitement

getting excited. More blood flow to

genitals, beginnings of arousal

Plateau

Full arousal, erections and vaginal lubrication

orgasm

Orgasm, intense pleasure. Ejaculation for

males

Resolution

returns to baseline

Cultural influences

plays a large role in sexual

activity. (Some cultures are highly permissive, others

are highly repressive.)

sexual education

is controversial in the USA, But not at all controversial in some countries.

Comprehensive sex-ed

Provides comprehensive information, including sexual

behavior, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), birth

control, and condoms. Abstinence and waiting are still

encouraged

Abstinence-only sex-ed

Sex outside of marriage presented as harmful. Condoms

and contraceptives are criticized. Abstinence is taught as

the only valid way to avoid unwanted pregnancies and

STIs

Comprehensive sex education

Does not “promote promiscuity” – students are

NOT more likely to have sex and the students have sex later. (More likely to use

protection Does lower STI risk and teen pregnancy)

Abstinence-only sex education

Students are more likely to have sex younger,

and not use protection (Increases STI risk and teen pregnancy, ironically.)

sexual fluidity

involves one or more changes in

orientation within a person.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

theorized our needs as a pyramid,

in which needs at a lower level must be met

before one develops ‘higher’ needs. They

must be addressed in an order

self actualization

Maslow’s highest level. is the motivation to develop one’s full

potential as a human being.

intrinsic

based on internal factors such

as personal needs, curiosity, challenge,

or fun.

extrinsic

based on external incentives

like reward and punishment.

emotion

Feeling, or affect, that

can involve physiological

arousal, conscious

experience, and

behavioral expression

appraisal theory

Cognitive assessment of a situation

comes first, and then this determines if you’ll experience

any arousal or emotion

jame Langes theory

Physical sensations lead to

subjective feelings

cannon bard theory

Feelings and physical sensations

occur independently and simultaneously