ap psych 2025 unit 2 review (2025 ced)

based on 2025 ced

perception

the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses

bottom up processing

a reliance on external sensory information without using prior knowledge

top down processing

internal prior expectations that utilize previous knowledge

schema

a mental structure that helps organize and interpret information

perceptual set

a persons tendency to notice and interpret specific elements of sensory input while disregarding others, shaped by schemas

gestalt psychology

a movement in psychology that seeks to explain perceptions in terms of gestalts(an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts) rather than by analyzing their components

closure

the tendency to perceive a complete image even when there are gaps in the information presented

figure and ground

the way our visual system separates an image into a foreground element (the figure) and a background element (the ground)

proximity

the principle that objects that are close together are perceived as being part of the same group, more than objects which are farther apart

similarity

elements perceived as similar are grouped together in the mind, even if they are not physically close

attention

an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes

cocktail party effect

people listen to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments

change blindness

occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention

binocular depth cues

utilizes images from each eye to provide perception of death

retinal disparity

the difference between the images projecting onto the retina

ex. looking at your finger with one eye at a time, it appears to be moving because of retinal disparity

convergence

the merging of retinal images by the brain

monocular depth cues

give the illusion of depth on flat or 2d surfaces by only using one eye

relative clarity

the principle that closer objects appear sharper and more detailed than distant objects, which tend to appear hazier or less distinct

relative size

refers to how the perceived size of an object varies based on its proximity to other objects or its distance from the viewer

texture gradient

a visual cue that helps us perceive depth by showing a gradual change in texture as objects recede into the distance

linear perspective

a monocular depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

interposition

where one object is partially obscured by another, causing the partially obscured object to be perceived as further away

visual perceptual constancies

maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change

apparently movement

visually perceived movement even when objects are not actually moving

concept

form the basis of thought

prototype

the ideal example for any given concept

assimilation

taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it

accommodation

taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new info

algorithm

addresses problems by attempting all possible solutions until the correct one is found

heuristic

addresses problems by using mental shortcuts to make judgements

representativeness heuristic

decisions are made according to prior expectations or stereotypes

availability heuristic

decisions made by recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind

mental set

a psychological tendency or frame of mind that influences how we approach and solve problems

priming

subtly activating mental associations or ideas, making them more accessible and likely to be used in subsequent judgments or decisions

framing

focuses on how information is presented, including the wording, perspective, and context, to shape perceptions and influence choices

gambler’s fallacy

the mistaken belief that future independent events (like coin flips or roulette spins) are influenced by past outcomes

sunk cost fallacy

a cognitive bias where people continue to invest in something (time, money, effort) even when it's clear that the investment is no longer worthwhile, all because of the resources already spent on it

executive functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

creativity

a way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent thinking

divergent thinking

a cognitive process focused on generating a wide range of ideas, options, and possibilities for a given problem or topic

convergent thinking

a cognitive process where you focus on finding a single, well-defined solution to a problem by applying established rules and logic

functional fixedness

a cognitive bias where people struggle to see objects being used in ways beyond their typical, familiar functions

explicit memory

a type of memory that refers to the conscious and intentional recollection of factual information, personal experiences, and concepts. its more easily described to others, includes episodic and semantic memory

implicit memory

memory where the unconscious or unintentional recollection of information, skills, or experiences that influence behavior without conscious recall. its more challenging to explain to others, including procedural memory

episodic memory

memory that involves recalling specific past events, including details like the who, what, where, and when of an event

semantic memory

memory that stores factual information, concepts, and the meaning of words

procedural memory

a type of long-term memory that stores how to perform specific actions or tasks

prospective memory

the ability to remember to perform a planned action at a future time or in a future context

long term potentiation

a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, a biological process for memory

working memory model

examines how working memory engages in a dynamic interaction with several components to process info into long term memory

central executive

a component of {Baddeley's working memory model}, serving as the central control system for working memory

phonological loop

a component of working memory that handles verbal information, specifically speech-based information, responsible for temporarily storing and rehearsing sounds for a short period

visuospatial sketchpad

a component of working memory responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating visual and spatial information

ex. playing tetris uses this by visualizing the placement of tetris blocks before they are placed

multi store model

proposes that information must be past through the three interacting memory systems of sensory, short term, and long term memory in order to be remembered. focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval

sensory memory

the initial stage of memory where we briefly hold information from our senses before deciding what to attend to and pass on to short-term memory

iconic memory

a type of sensory memory that briefly stores visual information before it's either transferred to long-term memory or forgotten

echoic memory

a type of sensory memory that briefly stores auditory information, allowing you to recall sounds for a short period after they are heard

levels of processing model

proposes that memory is encoded on three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phenomic, and semantic

encoding

involves processes and strategies to get info into memory

mnemonic devices

processes that aid in encoding info into working and long term memory

method of loci

a mnemonic device that uses spatial memory to aid in memorizing information. It involves mentally associating items to be remembered with locations in a familiar environment

chunking

grouping info together into meaningful chunks to improve memory

the spacing effect

a process that can cause significant differences in encoding and memory consolidation depending on whether the info is encoded all at once or distributed over time

serial position effect

info presented at the beginning of a list or the end of the list will be more memorable than info in the middle of the list

primacy effect

a psychological phenomenon where individuals tend to better remember information presented first in a list or sequence compared to information presented late

recency effect

a psychological phenomenon where people tend to remember information presented most recently better than information presented earlier

recall

remembering without cues

recognition

memory which relies on retrieval cues

context dependent memory

the phenomenon where recalling a memory is more effective when the environment or context during retrieval is similar to the one present when the memory was originally formed

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall information better when it aligns with one's current mood

state dependent memory

the phenomenon where the ease of retrieving a memory is influenced by a person's internal state (e.g., mood, physiological state) at the time of encoding and retrieval

testing effect

a learning phenomenon where testing oneself on previously learned material significantly enhances long-term retention compared to simply rereading or reviewing the same content

metacognition

"thinking about thinking," encompassing the awareness and control of one's own cognitive processes

forgetting curve

illustrates how quickly learned information is lost over time unless it is actively retained

encoding failure

the inability to create a memory link because the information wasn't properly encoded into long-term memory in the first place

proactive interference

when older information interferes with the learning of new information

retroactive interference

when new information interferes with the recall of older information

tip of the tongue phenomenon

the frustrating experience of knowing a word or term but being unable to retrieve it from memory, even though you have a strong feeling that you know it

repression

a defense mechanism where the unconscious mind blocks distressing thoughts, impulses, feelings, or memories from conscious awareness. the psychodynamic approach theorizes that the ego can repress memories to minimize distress

misinformation effect

the phenomenon where exposure to misleading or false information after an event can distort a person's memory of that event

source amnesia

the inability to accurately remember the source of a piece of information, despite remembering the information itself

constructive memory

the process by which memories are actively built and reconstructed rather than simply stored and retrieved

memory consolidation

the process by which newly acquired information is transformed into a more stable and enduring form, ensuring its long-term storage in the brain

imagination inflation

the act of imagining an event can make it seem more real and likely to have occurred, even if it didn't

iq

test that divides mental age by chronological age

standardization

when a test is administered using consistent procedures and environments

validity

when a test measures what it is designed to measure

construct validity

the extent to which a test or measurement tool actually measures the theoretical construct or concept it's designed to assess

predictive validity

the extent to which a test or other measure accurately predicts future outcomes or behaviors

reliability

when a test yields similar results each time it is administered

test retest reliability

refers to the consistency of scores obtained when the same test is administered to the same individuals at two different time points

split half reliability

a method to assess the internal consistency of a test by dividing it into two halves and comparing the scores on each half

stereotype threat

a psychological phenomenon where an individual, belonging to a group stereotyped negatively, feels at risk of confirming that stereotype when they perform a task

stereotype lift

the phenomenon where a group's performance increases when they are told about a positive stereotype that pertains to them, or when they are not part of a negative stereotype

flynn effect

iq scores across most of the world have generally increased overtime due to societal factors

achievement test

an academic test that attempts to measure what someone knows

aptitude test

a test that predicts how someone will perform in the future

fixed mindset

the belief that abilities and intelligence are static, meaning they are innate and cannot be significantly changed through effort or learning

growth mindset

the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed and improved through dedication, effort, and learning